The Effects of People and Noise Pollution

The Effects of People and Noise

Humans are by nature territorial. The need for personal space, and territory is an inherent trait that stems back to early mankind. In the early stages of mankind, privacy may not have been as large a factor as it is in modern society because early man was more likely to live in pack environments. As mankind advanced, and society modernized with villages and settlements, the value of privacy became more important. This modernization of man also increased the human need for territory and personal space. In early settlements, families began to live as separate dwellings from other tribe members. As mankind evolved from early settlements, people started congregating larger numbers in smaller environments. This evolution in mankind refined early man’s need for less restrictive territorial, personal, and private spaces to a major aspect of human socialization.

In modern society, individual need for territory has developed from large plots of land to include smaller spaces in congested urban environments. These smaller spaces could be a house in a suburban neighborhood to a small apartment in the inner city. No matter where the individual’s territory is, it is a place that he or she can personalize, and create his or her own personal space, personality, and privacy. Another concern for society is noise intrusion. As society advanced into more congested environments, noise levels rose in as society advanced. In the early days of villages or settlements, nature was still the primary noise, but noises also developed from society. Sounds of horses, people in shopping areas, and other congregational areas rose. As mankind advanced on mechanical and technological levels, the sounds of the natural environment became drowned out by sounds of factories, cars, and other noises associated with growing societies.

The Perception of Territory

When people think of territory, it is common to think of a small piece of land controlled by an individual, or a large area like a city, state or country controlled by a group of people (Saitoh, 1985). In the animal kingdom, large predator cats mark their hunting territory by spraying or scenting trees or shrubs that surround their territory (Saitoh, 1985). Although humans do not scent or spray shrubs or trees, people do mark territorial boundaries with both physical and mental markings. Because humans are basically animals, it is safe to surmise that some territorial tendencies do transfer from one species to another (Gosling, 2001). To understand territorial possession or behavior, one must first consider personality types. Some people have affiliative personalities, whereas others have aggressive or assertive personalities. People with affiliative personalities are less likely to be protective of territory than a person with an aggressive personality (Gosling, 2001). Because human personality, like those of animals, differs by geographic, social, and historical properties, territorial perspectives are also going to differ accordingly (Gosling, 2001).

In the modern age of technology, the word “territory” has expanded to include physical and virtual environments. Humans are expanding personal environments to include cyber-spaces like FaceBook, MySpace, Twitter, and other social networking systems. Individuals partaking in regular online activities start to become possessive of their Internet identity, and relate to home pages, and social sites as their personal territory (Slane, 2005). Individuals become protective on these cyber-territories, even to a point of becoming angered if a server suffers an Internet attack, or if strangers try to gain access to private spaces, or send unsolicited communications via email (Slane, 2005).

The Perception of Privacy

Privacy is more difficult to define than territory because it references a vast amount of interests that include controlling personal data, and access to particular places or physical presence (Kemp, 2007). Privacy is an issue that crosses many aspects of society. There are aspects of personal privacy relating to an individual’s right to release personal information, and legal aspects of privacy that guarantee an individual’s rights related to personal privacy (Kemp, 2007). For example the HIPPA Omnibus Rule that provides federal protection of individual medical records, and the rights of the individual to disclose said information (HHS.Gov, 2013).

As with other societal issues, privacy, and how an individual views it based on his or her societal and cultural structure. The United Sates, for example has laws that protect the privacy of citizens from illegal search and seizure from state or federal agencies, whereas citizens of most communist countries are not provided the same rights (Kemp, 2007). More controversial issues regarding privacy is an issue that faces constant backlash from people from multiple cultural backgrounds. This is the right to privacy provided to women from the outcome of Roe vs. Wade, that challenged the constitutionality of Texas abortion laws (Supreme Court of the United Sates, 1973).

The Perception of Personal Space

Personal space is recognized as the immediate physical area surrounding a person, and where the majority of the person’s interactions take place (Little, 1965). Personal space is an issue that crosses the boundaries of territory and privacy. Personal Space is the area in which a person feels comfortable around others. It is suspected that personal space is recognized by people starting in early childhood, and that differences in personal space varies from males to females, and at different sexual development stages (Oswalt, 2013). Personal space also relates to Internet and other technological devices like cellular phones and fax machines (Federal Trade Commission, 2013). In response to an unbridled barrage of invasions into personal space on the Internet, the President of the United Sates signed into law the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003, which restricted unauthorized intrusion from mass email marketers, and marketers using other mediums like fax machines and cellular phones. Invasion of personal space also can be unintentional. Researchers surmise that certain areas of the brain cause discomfort reactions when another person stands too close to another (Novotney, 2004).

The Urban Effect

Humans are by nature social animals. People congregate in social hubs to perform daily tasks like shopping, eating out, and socializing (Wolfe, 2003). As society progresses these social areas become more crowded, and filled with noises that affect an individual’s ability to concentrate (Wolfe, 2003). People living in urban settings are more likely to become protective of personal space, perceived territory, and privacy because population density causes a heightened defensive reaction (Little, 1965). Issues like squatter settlements begin to appear on basement, lobby, and first level floors of many abandoned buildings, which causes a rise in rodent infestations, and diseases because the infrastructure of these buildings no longer functions (Wolfe, 2003). Weather and noise are major factors that influence behavior in urban settings (Stewart, 2009). As temperatures and noise levels change, individual’s ability to concentrate on daily tasks, get proper amounts of sleep, or focus on important actions is inhibited. This results in individuals becoming more frustrated, angry, and anxious in the urban setting, and results in illnesses like stress, heart related problems, and exhaustion (Stewart, 2009).

Reducing The Urban Effect

Natural settings within urban environments allow people to access spaces developed to provide a sense of peace and tranquility to the busy urban setting around them. Areas that serve as social gathering spaces like zoos allow people in urban settings to learn about wild animals, and explore other living creatures in a safe, and sometimes more natural setting. Parks allow people to relax, play with friends, or have family picnics that bring the family together for a warm, Sunday afternoon. These distractions from the daily urban setting allow a person to relax, which reduces stress levels, and improves individual satisfaction of daily life.

Another method of reducing stressors related to urban environments is noise pollution control. New building materials designed to reduce noise from external sources is being more widely used in new housing projects, and modern office interiors are designed with furnishings that reduce noise pollution from within the office environment. Technology has advanced to increase noise reduction in phone headsets in call centers to allow employees to communicate with customers without distractions, and the development of personal music systems like the iPod allow individuals to use headsets to reduce noise levels in public transportation mediums.

Conclusion

The human animal is a complex creature in regard to perceptions of territory, personal space, and privacy. The reason is he various factors related to how humans perceive these issues. Cultural, societal, and inherent traits play major roles in how we perceive the most personal aspects of our daily lives. In addition to how we perceive these personal issues are other factors like population density, public access to recreational environments, and noise pollution. Recreational resources allow people to congregate in social environments to enjoy personal time with friends and family, which results in reduced stress levels. Advancements in technology allow buildings to reduce external noise sources that enable people to relax more openly in home environments, and office designs incorporate new materials in furnishings, and advancements in technology to help employees perform in a more relaxed and professional environment.

References

            

Gosling, S. D. (2001, Jan). From mice to men: What can we learn about personality from animal testing. Psychological Bulletin, 127(1), 45-86. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.45

            

HHS.Gov. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacy/hipaa/understanding/index.html

           

Kemp, R. (2007). Privacy. Library Hi Tech, 25(1), 58-78. doi:10.1108/07378830710735867

           

Little, K.B. (1965). Personal space. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1(3), 237-247. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(65)90028-4

            

Novotney, A. (2004, December). New research explores our personal sense of space. Monitor on Psychology, 40(11), 10. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor/2009/12/space.aspx

            

Oswalt, A. (2013). Early Childhood Gender Identity and Sexuality. Retrieved from http://www.bhcmhmr.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12771&cn=462

           

Saitoh, T. (1985, December). Practical definition of territory and its application to the spatial distribution of voles. Journal of Ethology, 3(2), 143-149. doi:10.1007/BF02350305

            

Slane, A. (2005). Home Is where the Internet Connection Is: Law, Spam and the Protection of Personal Space. University of Ottawa law and technology journal, 2(2), 255-290.

            

Stewart, A.E. (2009, Fall/Winter). Environmental Psychology, Weather, & Climate. Population & Environmental Psychology Bulletin, 5(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.apadivisions.org/division-34/publications/newsletters/epc/2009/01-issue.pdf           

Supreme Court of the United States, . (1973, December). 410 U.S. 113 Roe v. Wade. Appeal from the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, 70(18), . Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0410_0113_ZS.html

A Definition of Environmental Psychology

A Definition of Environmental Psychology

Environmental psychology is the study of how physical environments affect individual behavior by using scientific methods to study how people interact with both natural and man-made environments. One of the major aspects of environmental psychology is the  study and understanding of how human behavior affects our natural environment. A major concern for modern society is energy conservation, which has been a growing topic of public awareness (Stern, 1992). Some of the prominent issues that rekindled the discussion of energy conservation are related to increases in acid rain, growing air pollution in urban living environments, and the major concerns of global warming (Stern, 1992).

My personal interest in environmental psychology is multifaceted. Previous experience with environmental psychology in the workplace exposed me to understanding how various changes in the office environment can alter individual personalities and work performance. The studies of contemporary environmental psychology have produced some very powerful implications for both natural and man-made environments and human behavior (Demick, & Wapner, 1990). One of these milestones is the study of environmental pollution. Evolving studies associated with issues like coastal pollution provide humanity with empirical data that shows the increases in harmful chemical levels along heavily populated coastal areas (Demick, & Wapner, 1990). Failure to address these issues will result in notable danger to human health, and potential development of more resistant diseases in future generations.

Conclusion

In conclusion, environmental psychology is not just about studying what wall colors will make employees perform better, or what various lighting sources will affect child learning abilities. It is a study of how both natural and man-made environments directly impact human existance.

References

Demick, J., & Wapner, S. (1990). Role of psychological science in promoting environmental quality: Introduction. American Psychologist, 45(5), 631-632. doi:10.1037/h0091627

Stern, P. C. (1992). What psychology knows about energy conservation. American Psychologist,             47(10), 1224-1232. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.47.10.1224

Marriage Equality in America

Marriage Equality in America

The United States is in the middle of another controversial issue, same-sex marriage. Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender people living in the United States have been faced with numerous constitutional violations; both from citizens and the government of the United States. Denial of marriage equality is only one issue in a long history of deplorable treatment that the Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender community has suffered throughout the decades. From bar raids, arrests, and harassment from law enforcement in the 1960s to denial of equal protection of private property when one partner of a gay couple dies. The United States government took drastic measures by approving a constitutional amendment denying equal rights called the Defense of Marriage Act of 1996. Recently some states have recognized the civil rights of gay and lesbian couples and approved to sanction same sex marriage, whereas other states have incorporated constitutional amendments to deny gay couples equal rights.

Federal Law

According the Cornell University Law School, the United States Constitution 14th Amendment, section 1 ratified on July 09, 1868 states: All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws (para. 1).

On January 23, 2004 the General Accounting Office of the United States produced an update to an earlier report that was sent to Senator Bill Frist, Majority Leader of the United States Senate regarding the Defense of Marriage Act. The initial report submitted in 1997 identified 1,049 statutory provisions of the United States code that included benefits, rights, and privileges only available to couples that shared federally recognized marital status (United States General Accounting Office, 2004). When the updated report was submitted in 2004, the number of provisions requiring marital status was raised from 1,049 to 1,138. This report from the United States General Accounting Office clearly outlines the 1,138 provisions currently denied to same sex couples because the Defense of Marriage Act passed on September 21, 1996 prohibits these couples from legally entering into a federally recognized civil union (United States General Accounting Office, 2004).

The Opposition

The primary opponents of same-sex marriage in the United States are religious institutions that argue that marriage is fundamental to procreation of the human species. Supported by 13 states that have passed constitutional amendments banning same-sex marriage on a state level, and countless individuals that oppose homosexuality. The religious right of the United States is changing tactics of opposition from the 14th Amendment right to equality, and focusing on the Religion Clauses of the First Amendment. In an essay by Jeff Jordan, “Is It Wrong to Discriminate on the Basis of Homosexuality”, he argues that it is sometimes permissible for public policy to discriminate against homosexuals because homosexuality is morally controversial (Beyer, 2002). Jordan attempts to use the Difference Thesis to support his position that there is a morally relevant difference between homosexuals and heterosexuals, which in some cases, and areas of laws regarding equality justify differential treatment (Beyer, 2002).

Another popular position against same-sex marriage is the polygamy, incest, bestiality argument, commonly referred to as the PIB (Corvino, 2005). 

Supporters of the PIB argument, including U.S. Senator Rick Santorum believe that the legalization of same-sex marriage will lead the legalization of incest, bestiality, and polygamy, all of which are commonly noted as unacceptable practices in many cultural norms (Corvino, 2005). In an interview Senator Rick Santorum states as quoted by, Corvino (2005): If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home,    then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery. You have the right to anything. (p. 1). In the same interview Senator Santorum compared same-sex marriage to deplorable sexual acts like men having sex with children, dogs, and other cases (Corvino, 2005). Unfortunately, this argument has been a primary tool used by philosophers, Supreme Court Justices, politicians, religious institutions, and people within the general population (Corvino, 2005).

The Support

Beyer (2002) states “According to the Parity Thesis, there is no morally relevant difference between homosexuals and heterosexuals - the share the same moral status (p. 1). This position indicates that homosexuals and heterosexuals have the same moral basis, and are equally capable of adhering to moral norms of society. This position clearly shows that homosexuality is not a harm to societal norms, and courts throughout the United States have decided in favor of same-sex couples adopting children, and sharing in those states equal protection clauses. Marriage by definition is a word that falls into religious ritual, not legally recognized civil unions. The United States has a clear obligation to separate church from state, and in doing so must recognize that allowing the word “marriage” to represent or define a legally recognized civil union between two adults who meet the criteria of a functional family is a clear violation of such separation.

The ability to have access to the 1,138 provisions same-sex couples are excluded from, which include social security benefits, taxation benefits, and numerous other provisions afforded legally married couples is just one aspect of the argument. Another supporting position is health and mental wellness. The gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender community within the United States is significantly compromised in regard to health care delivery compared to the population in general (Buffie, 2011). Recognition and legalization of same-sex marriage allows same-sex couples access to medical benefits provided by employers and reduce the financial burden on society to pay for uninsured same-sex partners, and children of same-sex households. Medical concerns related to minority-stress is a growing national concern, especially after the high number of teen suicides related to bullying (Buffie, 2011).

A study of 34,000 gay, lesbian, and bisexual participants performed by Hatzenbbuehler, McLaughlin, Keyes, and Hasin produced empirical data supporting the negative health effects of discriminatory policies directly related to the subject of marriage equality. This study showed that individuals living in states that did not recognize marriage equality had significantly higher rates of psychiatric disorders like mood and anxiety disorder, and higher rates of substance abuse and psychiatric comorbidity that those living in states that did recognize marriage equality (Buffie, 2011). Currently available is a vast amount of research data that challenges the stigma that children raised by gay couples are less likely to live a well-balanced, healthy life. In fact, these studies have provided empirical evidence to the contrary. The data produced by these studies clearly indicates no difference in the psychological health of children raised by same-sex couples and those raised by heterosexual couples (Weber, 2011; Lambert, 2005; American Psychological Association, 2013).

Conclusion

Same-sex marriage is an issue that many countries will face over the next decade. Emotions regarding marriage equality run very high on both sides of the issue; however, opponents of the issue have not been able to provide empirical data that demonstrates that same-sex marriage is a detriment to society. Supporters of marriage equality, including major medical and psychological associations have produced empirical data that demonstrates same-sex families are just as viable in regard to stability as heterosexual families. Marriage equality in toto is an issue of basic, fundamental rights as outlined in the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution, and denial of these rights clearly creates a sub-classification of a minority population denied equal rights as heterosexual citizens.

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). Lesbian & gay Parenting: Theoretical & Conceptual Examinations Related to Lesbian & Gay Parenting. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/parenting.aspx

Beyer, J. A. (2002). Public Dilemmas and Gay Marriage: Contra Jordan. Journal Of Social Philosophy, 33(1), 9-16.

Buffie, W. C., M.D. (2011). Public health implications of same-sex marriage. American Journal of Public Health, 101(6), 986-90. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/867825961?accountid=35812

Cornell University Law School. (N.D.). Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv

 Corvino, J. (2005, April). Homosexuality and the PIB Argument. Chicago Journal, 115(3), 501-534. doi:10.1086/428456

Delaet, D. L., & Caufield, R. P. (2008). Gay marriage as a religious right: Reframing the legal debate over gay marriage in the united states*. Polity, 40(3), 297. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.polity.2300103

Lambert, S. (2005, December). Gay and Lesbian Families: What We Know and Where to Go From Here. The Family Journal, 13(1), 43-51. doi:10.1177/1066480704270150

United States General Accounting Office. (2004). Marriage Equality USA. Retrieved from http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04353r.pdf

Weber, S. (2011). Impacts of legal relationship recognition of same-sex parenting couples on family health and well-being. Journal of Nursing Law, 14(2), 39-48. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/878896030?accountid=35812

Depression in Human development and Society

Depression in Human Development and Society

According to Aetna InteliHealth (2011) states “You are a product of the interaction between your biology and the environment you grew up in” (p. 1). Depression is a mental condition that affects people for different reasons, and in different ways. In modern society depression has become so widespread that it is almost considered a designer illness, and has gained a level of societal acceptance as somewhat normal in some modern cultures. Depression is an illness that does not discriminate on age or gender. The condition can affect both children and adults, or men and women equally, but it does appear more frequently in specific age and gender groups. Individual personality, moods, and reactions to various interactions throughout life are based on biological, psychological, and societal roots (Aetna InteliHealth, 2011).

Research on the multiple dimensions of personality are a major focus of research psychologists, and numerous studies have produced data that shows personality traits remain fairly consistent over an individual’s lifespan (Aetna InteiliHealth, 2011). Although this indicates that genetic and biological factors are a strong influence, environmental factors also have significant influence on how a person perceives as his or her inner-self, and how the person will react to societal interactions (Aetna InteliHealth, 2011). British psychologist John Bowlby (1907-1990) studied the interaction between biology and environment. His celebrated works demonstrated the individual need of affection and guidance is balanced by equality of adventure and independence (Aetna InteliHealth, 2011).

Human Development Factors

Human development is an important aspect of any individual’s mental well-being. A child raised in a loving, supportive, and encouraging home is more likely to display a better ability to adapt to situations, both environmental and psychological, in adulthood. Children learn the home-life influences that will influence how they develop. Some children are more likely to seek experiences that are comforting, whereas others may seek experiences that provide more invigoration, and excitement (Aetna InteliHealth, 2011). In contrast to children raised in more desirable environments, children  raised in environmental conditions considered hard or hostile are more likely to develop deficiencies in adapting to opportunities and stressors in life (Aetna InteliHealth, 2011). Depression is just one of the negative outcomes for people raised in environments in which alcoholism, mental and physical abuse, and neglect are prominent (Aetna InteilHealth, 2011). Experiences like loss in childhood, the death of a family member, a personal tragedy like molestation, and other mental or physical traumas are recognized as precursors to an individual’s susceptibility to depression.

Socialization Factors

Socialization is an area of study that focuses on the social effects on depression in both adults and children; however, more studies have been performed on socialization effects on adults than adolescents and children (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011). Using well  established models of cognitive-interpersonal influences on depression, researchers have placed emphasis on understanding the developmental variations of social processes related to the onset and maintenance of depression (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011). Data from this research suggests that the transition from childhood to adolescence presents concern of vulnerability to contexts of depression; this is noted as being more prevalent in girls than boys. According to Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, and Prinstein (2011) “Depression socialization initially was documents in the adult clinical literature, with much of the relevant research deriving from J.C. Coyne’s 1976 interpersonal theory of depression” (p. 1). Continued studies focused on the depression socialization hypothesis in naturalistic context are designed to examine the intergenerational transmission of depression, and have produced data that indicates a temporal association between diagnosis of depression in mothers and their children (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011).

Although there has been much research of depression socialization in adults, studies examining socialization of depression in adolescents and young children has been somewhat overlooked, even with the large amount of data from clinical research on developmental influences on children (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011). The study performed by Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, and Prinstein was performed to examine and identify to connection of an individual’s depression to specific friendship groups, and average levels of depressive symptoms within the group. This study surmised that the average levels of depression socialization effects in a peer group could be used as a predictor for an individual’s depression symptoms over time (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011). The study found that peer influence, and individual position within the group could determine the strength of depression socialization, and the effects were more prevalent in adolescents within the group that had lower friendship nominations from other group members (Conway, Rancourt, Adelman, Burk, & Prinstein, 2011).

Conclusion

Depression is a condition that affects people on a non-discriminatory level. It is a condition influenced by biological, and social factors an individual experiences throughout his or her lifetime. Two major influences on depression are human development that include experiences in childhood, and socialization factors that include how depression relates to various peer groups. Although considerable data shows that females are more prone to depression than males, it does not reduce the seriousness of symptoms related to depression. Studies indicate that early development, combined with biological factors play a major role in predicting depression at various stages of an individual’s life. Taking into account studies that show socialization influences also helps provide predictors for depression. Accounting for the variables of biological, developmental, and environmental allows researchers to develop new methods of diagnosing and treating depression in people spanning all age brackets.

References

Aetna InteliHelath. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/8596/35215/362810.html?d=dmtContent

Conway, C. C., Rancourt, D., Adelman, C. B., Burk, W. J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2011, August 15).            

Depression Socialization Within Friendship Groups at the Transition to Adolescence: The Roles of Gender and Group Centrality as Moderators of Peer Influence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0024779