Industrial/Organizational Psychology Worksheet
The purpose of this assignment is to examine the
fundamental concepts of the field of industrial/organizational psychology.
1.
Describe the evolution of the field of
industrial/organizational psychology.
According to Spector (2012) “I/O psychology is an eclectic field that has borrowed concepts, ideas, techniques, and theories from many other disciplines.” (p. 5). Industrial and organizational psychology, or something similar can be traced back to the studies of European scientist Herman von Helmholtz (1821-1894). He expanded on the concept of conservation of human energy to determine if the energy levels in the present labor force were sufficient to the increasing demands of the industrial revolution (Koppes, & Pickren (n.d). English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) surmised that knowledge begins with the individual’s sensory experience. He further believed that logical thinking combined with sensory experience was superior to religion as a basis for developing a civil society (Koppes, & Pickren, n.d.). Another philosopher, Karl Marx (1818-1883) argued that freedom defined what it is to be human. He believed that a struggle for freedom existed in a capitalist system because the system attempted to develop a false sense of consciousness or belief of freedom in workers (Koppes, & Picken, n.d.). Emil Kraeplin (1856-1926) performed studies focused on work performance. He surmised that few differences between physical and mental performance existed. He believed that workers experienced fatigue in mental and physical performance in similar ways by interpreting work curve results that showed declines in production over time, and that fatigue could be reduced over time through practice and training (Koppes, & Pickren, n.d.).
According to Spector (2012) “I/O psychology is an eclectic field that has borrowed concepts, ideas, techniques, and theories from many other disciplines.” (p. 5). Industrial and organizational psychology, or something similar can be traced back to the studies of European scientist Herman von Helmholtz (1821-1894). He expanded on the concept of conservation of human energy to determine if the energy levels in the present labor force were sufficient to the increasing demands of the industrial revolution (Koppes, & Pickren (n.d). English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) surmised that knowledge begins with the individual’s sensory experience. He further believed that logical thinking combined with sensory experience was superior to religion as a basis for developing a civil society (Koppes, & Pickren, n.d.). Another philosopher, Karl Marx (1818-1883) argued that freedom defined what it is to be human. He believed that a struggle for freedom existed in a capitalist system because the system attempted to develop a false sense of consciousness or belief of freedom in workers (Koppes, & Picken, n.d.). Emil Kraeplin (1856-1926) performed studies focused on work performance. He surmised that few differences between physical and mental performance existed. He believed that workers experienced fatigue in mental and physical performance in similar ways by interpreting work curve results that showed declines in production over time, and that fatigue could be reduced over time through practice and training (Koppes, & Pickren, n.d.).
Experimental psychology is considered to play a major role
in the development of I/O psychology, and provided the principles and
techniques (Spector, 2012). At the time, several psychologists were attempting
to apply psychological theory to the business sector using techniques like
psychological testing (Spector, 2012). In the United States, early work in I/O
psychology focused on issues concerning employee performance and organizational
efficiency, but in the United Kingdom the focus was directed more toward the
health and fatigue of employees (Spector, 2012). Pioneering the I/O psychology
movement in the United States were two experimental psychologists; Hugo
Munsterberg (1863-1916), and Walter Dill Scott (1869-1955). Their early work
placed emphasis on the application of psychology to help solve organizational
problems (Spector, 2012). Both Munsterberg and Scott were also credited for
writing the first books related to I/O psychology: The Theory of Advertising by
Scott (1903), and Psychology and Industrial Efficiency by Munsterberg (1913). During World War I both the United States and
United Kingdom began implementing I/O psychology in response to military demand
on both the private and government sectors (Spector, 2012). After World War I,
I/O psychology continued to expand into most of the areas of application it is
used for today (Spector, 2012).
2.
Explain why industrial/organizational psychology
should be considered a science. Include
an explanation of how descriptive and inferential statistics are used in I/O
research.
According to Spector (2012) “I/O psychologists do many different jobs in a wide variety of settings.” (p. 6). Psychologists that focus on I/o psychology are often divided between the areas of practice and scientific research. Because the practice of I/O psychology in an organization setting is based on research produced by scientific data, I/O psychology is dependent on scientific research (Spector, 2012). Although there are two distinct classifications of I/O psychology, those who specialize in the fiend are more likely to perform work that crosses both sectors. One major difference is setting. Most research is performed in college or university settings where I/O psychologists are employed as professors. Most practical I/O psychology is applied to consulting firms, government, private sector organizations, and military (Spector, 2012). I/O psychology can be considered a science because research is one of the primary activities performed by I/O psychologists (Spector, 2012). One of the major contributions that researchers have provided to I/O psychology is the development of procedures used to select and train employees (Spector, 2012). Research is also used to solve problems that an organization may be experiencing. These problems can range from employee turnover, employee theft, and attitude in the workplace (Spector, 2012). Although most research data is published in major publications or journals produced by associations, and private entities, practitioners can get access to research data by attending annual conferences (Spector, 2012).
I/O psychologists use various research methods that include the basic methods, procedures, techniques, and tools used to conduct empirical research (SOIP, 2013). These basic techniques of scientific method, inductive and deductive reasoning, development of research questions, hypothesis creation, design and implementation of studies, and the nature and definition of constructs form the basis the general areas of I/O psychology (Spector, 2012). I/O psychologists also use various statistical techniques to analyze the data that empirical research produces (Spector, 2012). This process includes both inferential and descriptive statistical methods, and parametric and nonparametric methods. This requires the use of specific competencies, and issues and techniques that encompass estimation of central tendencies, estimates of variability, sampling and distributions, and estimates of point and interval (Spector, 2012).
According to Spector (2012) “I/O psychologists do many different jobs in a wide variety of settings.” (p. 6). Psychologists that focus on I/o psychology are often divided between the areas of practice and scientific research. Because the practice of I/O psychology in an organization setting is based on research produced by scientific data, I/O psychology is dependent on scientific research (Spector, 2012). Although there are two distinct classifications of I/O psychology, those who specialize in the fiend are more likely to perform work that crosses both sectors. One major difference is setting. Most research is performed in college or university settings where I/O psychologists are employed as professors. Most practical I/O psychology is applied to consulting firms, government, private sector organizations, and military (Spector, 2012). I/O psychology can be considered a science because research is one of the primary activities performed by I/O psychologists (Spector, 2012). One of the major contributions that researchers have provided to I/O psychology is the development of procedures used to select and train employees (Spector, 2012). Research is also used to solve problems that an organization may be experiencing. These problems can range from employee turnover, employee theft, and attitude in the workplace (Spector, 2012). Although most research data is published in major publications or journals produced by associations, and private entities, practitioners can get access to research data by attending annual conferences (Spector, 2012).
I/O psychologists use various research methods that include the basic methods, procedures, techniques, and tools used to conduct empirical research (SOIP, 2013). These basic techniques of scientific method, inductive and deductive reasoning, development of research questions, hypothesis creation, design and implementation of studies, and the nature and definition of constructs form the basis the general areas of I/O psychology (Spector, 2012). I/O psychologists also use various statistical techniques to analyze the data that empirical research produces (Spector, 2012). This process includes both inferential and descriptive statistical methods, and parametric and nonparametric methods. This requires the use of specific competencies, and issues and techniques that encompass estimation of central tendencies, estimates of variability, sampling and distributions, and estimates of point and interval (Spector, 2012).
3.
Discuss the influence industrial/organization
psychology has had on organizations. Provide examples.
During the periods between World War I and World War II American organizations started employing the services of I/O psychologists to address employee problems primarily related to productivity. During this same time, I/O psychology in the United Kingdom was also advancing studies on improving efficiency and working conditions for British workers (Spector, 2012). This time period saw the development of I/O psychology consulting firms, with the first recognized firm called the American Company Psychological Corporation being formed by James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) in 1921 (Spector, 2012). Another important milestone in I/O psychology during this time was the Hawthorn studies that were conducted by over a 10-year span at the Western Electric Company (Spector, 2012). The Hawthorn studies originally focused on environmental aspects of the workplace, which included how brightness of lights, and issues like humidity influenced worker productivity (Franke, & Kaul, 1978 as cited in Clark, 1995). The studies evolved into the psychological aspects of employee performance and included issues like employee breaks, managerial leadership, group influences, and working hours (Franke, & Kaul, 1978 as cited in Clark, 1995). Two major factors that helped shape the field of I/O psychology in the United States were the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Americans With Disabilities Act in 1990 (Spector, 2012). Although these two major events helped shape the field of I/O psychology, research from the field has produced valuable information that improved the standards of the workplace, which resulted in improvements in employee satisfaction and productivity through comprehensive training programs, and policies developed to enhance the work environment (Spector, 2012).
During the periods between World War I and World War II American organizations started employing the services of I/O psychologists to address employee problems primarily related to productivity. During this same time, I/O psychology in the United Kingdom was also advancing studies on improving efficiency and working conditions for British workers (Spector, 2012). This time period saw the development of I/O psychology consulting firms, with the first recognized firm called the American Company Psychological Corporation being formed by James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) in 1921 (Spector, 2012). Another important milestone in I/O psychology during this time was the Hawthorn studies that were conducted by over a 10-year span at the Western Electric Company (Spector, 2012). The Hawthorn studies originally focused on environmental aspects of the workplace, which included how brightness of lights, and issues like humidity influenced worker productivity (Franke, & Kaul, 1978 as cited in Clark, 1995). The studies evolved into the psychological aspects of employee performance and included issues like employee breaks, managerial leadership, group influences, and working hours (Franke, & Kaul, 1978 as cited in Clark, 1995). Two major factors that helped shape the field of I/O psychology in the United States were the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Americans With Disabilities Act in 1990 (Spector, 2012). Although these two major events helped shape the field of I/O psychology, research from the field has produced valuable information that improved the standards of the workplace, which resulted in improvements in employee satisfaction and productivity through comprehensive training programs, and policies developed to enhance the work environment (Spector, 2012).
References
Clark,
D. (1995). Hawthorn Effect. Retrieved from
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/history/hawthorne.html
Koppes,
L. & Pickren, W. (n.d.). Industrial and Organizational
Psychology. Retrieved from http://uwf.edu/skass/orgpsy_files/articles/Historical%20perspectives1.pdf
The Oxford Handbook of Organizational
Psychology. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://iopsych.msu.edu/koz/Kozlowski%20(Ed)%20-%20Oxford%20Handbook%20of%20Organizational%20Psychology-Abstracts.pdf
SIOP. (2013). Retrieved from
http://www.siop.org/history/crsppp.aspx
Spector, P. E.
(2012). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th
ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
