Introduction to Human Personality

Introduction to Human Personality

            When people consider human personality it is common to ask if personality is the root cause of why people behave the way they do, and why people react to situations the way they do. Other questions researchers seek to answer is whether or not an individual has a conscious choice in how his or her personality is formed, and why do people have such varying personality traits (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Many of the questions researchers face today regarding human personality have been around for centuries. Until recently, philosophers, theologians, and psychologists have made very little progress in answering some of the most basic questions about human personality (Feist, & Feist). Renowned psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) began the process of listening to patients so he could determine what hidden conflicts were causing the patient’s symptoms. Freud’s method, which started out as a minor investigative tool, became more of a scientific method that allowed him to formulate hypothesis and verify them against clinical experience, which eventually led him to evolve the first modern theory of human personality (Feist, & Feist).

            Following Freud’s work psychologists have evolved the study of personality but have continued to fail to develop a singular definition of what human personality is. According to Feist, and Feist (2009), “Indeed, they evolved unique and vital theories because they lacked agreement as the nature of humanity, and because each saw personality from an individual reference point” (p. 3). Th individual reference points of personality theorists were developed based on the researcher’s own personal background, geographical, religious experiences, and clinical backgrounds. Some theorists have attempted to develop comprehensive theories about personality, and some simply focused on various aspects of human personality development (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Although there are various views of human personality, there is a belief that human personality is regarded as a pattern of “relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior” (Feist, & Feist, 2009, p. 4).

Personality

            Individual traits are a contributing factor in an individual’s behavior, the consistency of the behavior, and stability of behavior in conjunction with various situations (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Traits are regarded as being more unique to an individual. Traits can also be regarded as a common factor in groups of people, and in some cases, shared by an entire species (Feist, & Feist). In cases of commonality of groups or species, these traits will display a different pattern on an individual basis. Although people may exhibit similar traits, each person has variations in personality based on factors like religious beliefs, cultural norms, and upbringing. Individuals also exhibit variations in characteristics unique to the individual. These characteristics include various attributes like temperament, physique, and intelligence level (Feist, & Feist).

The Study of Personality

            The study of personalities is as important to psychology as studying thoughts, emotions, and behavior (allPsych, 2003). Psychological study of human behavior requires that researchers observe behavior and objectively report the behavior appropriately. Researchers must be able to explain why the person behaved a in the manner observed (AllPsych).  Once a particular behavior is observed and explained researchers can make educated predictions of the behavior’s reoccurrence, and develop methods to correct the behavior (AllPsych). As with the study of behavior, researchers perform similar experiments to develop personality theories.

The goal of personality research is to understand the basic personality traits, and to determine if individual traits can be groups into categories or clusters (AllPsych, 2003). Other questions personality theorists try to answer is how personality traits develop, and what roles do biological and environmental influences affect the individual’s personality (AllPsych). This leads researchers to determine if knowledge of personality can be used to make various predictions, and what assessment devices will be effective in studying personality (AllPsych). Can researchers discover an effective method to alter an individual’s personality, and under what circumstances should personality modification be applied (AllPsych).

            Although the basics of psychological study apply to how clinicians and researchers study various aspects of human personalities, there is no singular form of personality theory (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Biological theory suggests that genetics are responsible for individual personality. Researchers focused on the study of heredity surmise that a link between an individual’s personality and genetics (Feist, & Feist). In contrast to biological theorists, behavioral theorists suggest that individual personalities are a result of the individual’s interaction with his or her environment, but do not place credence in accounting for personal thoughts and emotions (Feist, & Feist). Heavily influenced by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), psychodynamic theory suggests that the unconscious mind and childhood experiences are major influences on individual personality development (AllPsych, 2003).

Factors of Personality

There are numerous factors that influence an individual’s personality. Henriques (2012) believes there are five characteristic adaptational systems that influence personality. Henriques suggests that individual habits correspond to basic levels of mental processing, and initiated by the presence of specific environmental cues, associations, and consequences (Henriques, 2012). The second system is the experiential system, which refers to an individual’s non-verbal feelings, images, and sensory aspects of human life (Henriques). The relational system refers to an individual’s social motivations and feelings in relation to internal working models, and self schema that influences an individual’s social relationships, and personal exchanges (Henriques). The defensive system in related to how an individual manages his or her actions, feelings, and thoughts. The defensive system also influences the individual’s ability to cope with distressing thoughts and experiences he or she may encounter (Henriques). The last component is the justification system that refers to how an individual verbalizes his or her beliefs and values, and how the individual develops of meaningful worldview (Henriques).

Conclusion

            Although the scientific community cannot decide on a specific system regarding personality theory, it is obvious that an individual’s personality is a major factor in how he or she lives daily life. Personality traits can determine how an individual reacts in stressful situations, or why he or she has a specific food item for lunch, and what time he or she eats lunch. An individual develops personality traits based on environmental, sociocultural, and personal experiences he or she has starting from childhood, and continues through adult life. Understanding personality can help researchers understand individual behaviors, and can allow researchers to predict an individual’s behavior.

References

AllPsych. (2003). Retrieved from http://allpsych.com/personalitysynopsis/approaches.html

Henriques, G. (2012). Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/theory-knowledge/201204/another-big-five-personality?page=2

Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of Personality (7th ed.) New York; McGraw Hill

Analysis of Individual Psychology

Analysis of Individual Psychological Theory

Individual psychological theory assumes there are numerous factors that influence an individual’s personality development (Mitchell, 2010; Boeree, 2006) These factors relate to physical influences like physical handicap or suffering from an illness. The second factor is social influences like cultural differences. The third factor is environmental influences like demographic differences (Mitchell; Boeree). Individual psychology is a reliable theory that has influenced how researchers study patients, and has proven to be stable and consistent over years of study and treatment of patients that have overcome physical limitations. It has also shown success in treatment of inferiority complex in young children by focusing on helping the patient understand various aspects of his or her life (Mitchell; Boeree).

Analysis of Analytical Psychological Theory

In contrast to individual psychological theory, analytical psychological theory assumes that human behavior and emotions develop at early childhood, and that an individual’s personality is shaped and modified with each new experience (Boeree, 2006; Edinger, 2012; McLeod, 2007). Analytical theory also assumes that individuals experience a constant conflict between the conscious and unconscious starting at childhood, and lasting through adult life. This theory is also very reliable, and was used as a basis to create the Myers-Briggs test, which is one of psychology’s most widely used assessment tests (Boeree; Edinger; McLeod).

References

 Boeree, C.G. (2006). Alfred Adler. Personality Theories. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/adler.html

Boeree, C.G. (2006). Carl Jung. Personality Theories. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/jung.html

Edinger, E.R. (2012) An Outline of Analytical Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.capt.org/using-type/c-g-jung.htm

McLeod, S. (2007) Psychodynamic Approach. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/psychodynamic.html

Mitchell, G. Alfred Adler and Adlerian individual psychology. Trans4mind. Retrieved 2010 from http://www.trans4mind.com/mind-development/adler.html

Schizophrenia Case Study

Case Study Analysis of Sally

Sally is a young girl suffering from schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is a psychotic disorder, or a group of disorders represented by a severe impairment of individual thought process, and behavior (TheFreeDictionary, 2012). According to Meyer, Chapman, and Weaver (2009) “it may be more accurate to refer to schizophrenia as a family of disorders rather than a singular disorder.” (p. 90). Untreated patients suffering from schizophrenia are normally unable to filter various sensory stimuli, and exhibit enhanced perception of color, sound, and other environmental factors. In most cases, a patient suffering from schizophrenia will gradually withdraw from personal interactions, and loose the ability to care for his or her individual basic needs (TheFreeDictionary, 2012). Schizophrenia is considered to be one of the top ten illnesses resulting in long-term disability, and accounts estimate that approximately 1% of the world population is affected by the illness (TheFreeDictionary, 2012).

The following analysis is designed to provide and analysis of the patient’s history, and events that resulted in her hospitalization. The analysis will provide the specifics of the patient’s biological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional components that factor into her illness.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia includes three different subtype, and two over subtypes. The main subtypes include the classifications of paranoid, disorganized, and catatonic, and each of these subtypes displays unique characteristics or symptoms (Hansell, & Damour, 2008). Patients suffering from paranoid schizophrenia will usually display symptoms of hallucinations or delusions. Patients suffering from disorganized schizophrenia are subject to an inappropriate effect, and disorganized speech patterns. Patients suffering from catatonic schizophrenia display symptoms of strange or bizarre sensory motor function (Hansell, & Damour, 2008). Individuals who display symptoms of schizophrenia but lack any symptoms of the three primary classifications are likely to be diagnosed into one of two alternate classifications: residual or undifferentiated schizophrenia (Hansell, & Damour, 2008). Symptoms of schizophrenia are classified into two primary categories. These two categories relate to positive and negative symptoms. Patients displaying positive symptoms exhibit pathological excesses including hallucinations, irrational thinking, and irrational behaviors, whereas patients displaying negative symptoms will exhibit pathological deficits including withdrawal and isolation from social interactions, and poverty of speech capabilities ((Hansell, & Damour, 2008).

Schizophrenia is a complex illness that affects both men and women on an equal level. The illness usually starts around the age of ten, or in young adulthood. However, cases of childhood-onset schizophrenia indicates that the illness can start as young as five years of age. This is a more rare case of schizophrenia that can difficult to diagnose in relation to other childhood developmental problems (PubMedHealth, 2012). While researchers have yet to discover the cause of schizophrenia, many suspect genetics to be a major contributor (PubMedHealth, 20120).

Patient History

The patient’s case study indicates that she has a history of eccentricity. Medical notations indicate that the patent's mother was an avid smoker, consuming approximately two packs of cigarets daily before and during pregnancy. Further notations include that the patient’s mother suffered from a very severe case of the flue during her fifth month of pregnancy. As a child, the patient showed signs of slower developmental skills, and was diagnosed as suffering from hyperactivity in early childhood. Records indicate that the patient experienced a turbulent home life because of ongoing conflicts between her parents that resulted in separation, and reconciliation. Because of her apparent developmental disabilities, her parents devoted time to the patient however, the patient did receive criticism from her father for her behavioral dysfunctions.

As the patient matured, she displayed signs of being socially awkward and isolated from her peers, and in early adulthood started to display worsening symptoms like talking to herself, and displaying unusual behavior like stating at the floor for long periods. Her first documented schizophrenia episode requiring hospitalization occurred shortly after the additional symptoms started to be displayed. During her examination, the patient displayed signs of unresponsiveness, and waxy flexibility that allowed her limbs to be easily positioned (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009). After the initial hospitalization, the patient was returned home to facilitate a quicker recovery. that was short lived because the patient failed to follow the prescribed treatment regimen which, resulted in a secondary episode shortly after her return to college. Further home-based treatments proved unsuccessful as the patient slowly declined, resulting in unresponsiveness, and displaying hebephrenic symptoms like unprovoked giggling, and rocking movements (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009).

The patient’s second hospitalization and treatments started to show positive results, and she was taken back to her home environment. She was able to obtain a part-time position at work, and maintain daily household chores. However, the patient failed to follow the prescribed treatment regimen. Following the death of her father, and additional stressors resulting from her mother’s added dependency, the patient suffered from a third regression of the illness. Her third hospitalization resulted from local law officials discovering her walking in a local pond while incoherently mumbling to herself.

Components of the Schizophrenic Episodes

The primary component of the patient’s episodes appear to be related to stress as the primary factor. However, biological factors resulting from her mother’s illness and smoking during pregnancy, and a genetic predisposition related to her grandfather's eccentricity are viable underlying factors resulting in the patient’s illness. In addition to the primary stressor, and the underlying genetic and biological factors, it is possible that the emotions of the patient also contributed to her condition. Further documentation indicates that interfamilial expressed emotion, and communication deviance are probably contributors that appear to be operative in the patient’s case (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009). The first of these factors, expressed emotion would be explained by the turbulent relationship, combined with her mother’s over protective nature conflicting with her father’s over critical reactions to the patient’s behavioral issues (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009). The second of these factors, communication deviance resulted from the patient’s inability to focus and maintain normal dialog with others (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009).

Cognitive factors are a viable consideration for this patient’s case. Meyer, Chapman, and Weaver (2009) suggest that prodomal pruning theory may be one example of a cognitive factor. Prodomal pruning theory suggests that the human brain deletes unnecessary synapses to allow the brain to function properly during the change from adolescence to adulthood (Meyer, Chapman, & Weaver, 2009). Behavior is another factor relating to the patient’s repeated hospitalization. The patient displayed behavior deficiencies in regard to compliance to prescribed treatment regimens, and involvement in situations that could produce high level stressors in her life.

Conclusion

Because illnesses like schizophrenia relate to various and different factors, each person effected by the illness will show differences in ability to function in a normal environment. The various classifications of schizophrenia, ability to receive treatments, and the consideration of various influences and base-line factors help researchers determine what classification a patient falls into. In this particular case, the patient displays symptoms of catatonic schizophrenia. She is able to function in environments that do not produce high levels of demand or stress on the individual. However, the underlying assumptions would indicate that the combination of outlined biological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral were in-place, and waiting for the appropriate stressor to trigger her symptoms.

References

Hansell, J. & Damour, L. (2008). Abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Meyer, R., Chapman, L. K., & Weaver, C. M. (2009). Case studies in abnormal behavior. (8th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Schizophrenia. (2012). Retrieved from http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/schizophrenia

Appendix

1. Schizophrenia

a.  Biological Factors - Genetic Predisposition, Illness During Pregnancy

b. Emotional Factors - Interfamilial Expressed, Emotion, Communication Deviance

c.  Cognitive Factors - Prodomal Pruning Theory

d. Behavioral Factors - Lack of Treatment, High Stress Activities

            

Behaviorism and Humanism Comparison

 Behaviorism and Humanism Comparison

Personality Overview Paper

The study of human personality has numerous theories. When looking at the differences of these theories, one can not help but wonder if the theories are a representation of the individual who developed them. There is also a question of variances based on geographical and time of which these theories were developed. Researchers gain a basic knowledge and understanding based on scientific research and current theories of the time. Combined with the personality of the individual, and his or her biases, it is easy to see how the various theories of personality came to be. As knowledge and scientific approaches advance, so do theories researchers develop. Some are based, and expand upon existing theories, and others may be completely new theories that challenge what researchers already understand.

As with all theories and practices, there will be strengths and limitations. In regard to personality theories one must determine whether or not the behavior is deterministic or the free will of the individual. Other factors to be accounted for are the individual’s awareness of self, or the conscious and unconscious motives for the individual’s behavior. Environmental factors must also be accounted for, as does the individual’s ethnic history, social background, and family experiences during childhood. Taking these factors into account, researchers can develop basic underlying assumptions of human behavior and personality traits.

Psychodynamic Theories

Some of the most noted individuals involved with psychodynamic theories are Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Alfred Alder (1870-1937), Carl Jung (1875-1961), Melanie Klein (1882-1960), Karen Horney (1885-1952), Erich Fromm (1900-1980), Harry Sullivan (1892-1949), and Erik Erikson (1902-1994). Each of these individuals developed theories that form the basic guidelines of understanding human personalities. These theories complement and contrast one another in various points and concepts, which gives researchers of today different ideas to work with. On their own, each theory has withstood years of advancements in the field of human personality studies, and have provided vast amounts of research data, and guidelines that researchers use to this day.

Theory Comparison

Researchers have various theories to choose from in regard to studying human personality and behavior. Researchers may choose to use a humanistic approach, a behavioral approach, or psychoanalytic approach, to name a few. Each approach provides a different set of assumptions, processes, and applications. They also provide different strengths and weaknesses that can aid or hamper scientific study.

Humanistic Approach

The humanistic approach emphasizes the study of the whole person, and that behavior is related to the individual’s inner feelings and self-concept (McLeod, 2007). The humanistic approach operates on the basic assumption that people have free will, and people have an innate desire to make themselves, and the world better (McLeod). Humanism also rejects the scientific approach used in other methods of psychological study, and places emphasis on humans being fundamentally different from other animals because humans are capable of thought, reason, and language (McLeod). Humanistic researchers rejected the rigorous scientific approach to psychology because it was viewed as dehumanizing, and lacking in the ability to capture the importance of conscious experiences (McLeod). Instead, the humanist approach relies on qualitative research methods like diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews, and observations on an individual level to discover the ways people think and feel (McLeod).

The humanistic approach views personal growth and fulfillment as a basic human motive, and argue that objective reality is less important than subjective perception and understanding (McLeod, 2007). It offered new ideals for approaching the understanding of human nature and condition, and expanded the horizon of methods used to study human behavior. As a result, humanism introduced a broader range of effective methods of psychotherapy practices (McLeod).

Behaviorist Approach

The behaviorist theory operates on the basic assumptions that psychology should be approached from a scientific manner, and emphasizes the concern of observable behavior over internal events like thinking (McLeod, 2007). It also suggests that behavior is the result of a stimulus, and is determined by the individual’s environment (McLeod). Behaviorist psychologists believe that theories require the support of empirical data obtained through carefully controlled observation and behavior measurement (McLeod). Behaviorists also believe that behavior can be objectively and scientifically measured, and that internal events like thinking and emotion can be explained using behavioral terms (McLeod). Behavioral research employs clinical techniques like lab experiments.

Some of the more noted experiments in behavioral science are Pavlov’s Dogs, The Skinner Box, and the Little Albert experiment. Although behavioral theory provides highly applicable therapy, it disregards mediational process, biology, and implies that individuals have little or no free-will (McLeod). Because behavioral theory emphasizes that individuals and animals learn new behavior through classical and operant conditioning, behaviorism is applied in areas like gender role development, behavioral therapy and modification, and treatment of phobias.

Comparison

Humanism and behaviorism both provide solid aspects in the study of human behavior. These tow theories each offer opposing assumptions like free-will versus no free-will. Each theory offers different approaches that either accept or reject scientific study, and emphasize the importance of either environmental or innate influences on human behavior. Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of the scientific process and assumes that individuals are shaped by their environment (McLeod, 2007), while humanism rejects the scientific methods used by behaviorism and assumes that individuals are shaped by an innate drive to make themselves and the world a better place (McLeod)

Conclusion

In the field of psychology, in particular the study of human behavior and personality there are numerous theories that offer different approaches, assumptions, and applications. While many of these theories are built on previous theories, they may provide variations of the original theory, or even contradict the previous theory in certain areas. Other theories like humanism may reject completely the assumptions of theories like behavioralism and take a completely different approach to the study of behavior and personality. In either case, the various theories that dominate the study of behavior and personality provide researchers with a wealth of understanding how and why humans behave, and what drives an individual to develop specific personality traits. One thing to remember in the study of human behavior and personality is that researchers to this day do not agree on what approach is correct, and that researchers must determine what approach fits his or her needs the best.

References

McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/perspective.html