Cultural Differences in Marriage

Marriage in Different Cultures

Marriage is an age-old tradition that represents the union of two individuals to form a family unit. Cultural differences are a major consideration of how marriages are performed, and define he essence of how a culture views intimate relationships. In some countries, marriages are prearranged to strengthen bonds between families, combine land control, or advance political agendas. In other countries marriage is a voluntary act that symbolizes the love shared by two individuals, or the desire to start a family. Today in America and other countries marriage has taken a modern turn in beliefs, practices, and purpose. Arranged marriage is less favorable, while intergenerational marriages have become normal practice.

Arranged Marriage in Hindu Culture

According to Chawla (2007) “Research on arranged marriage in the humanities and social sciences has been limited to historical and comparative sociological analyses” (p. 1). In India where Hinduism is the primary religion, arranged marriages are generally arranged based on specific criteria. There is a considerable amount of data regarding arranged marriage in India related to how marriage generates and reflects ideals of social order (Harman, 1997). This data shows comparisons to familial caste and subcaste boundaries, family dynamics, and the specific roles of husband and wife (Harman, 1997). Also reflected is the religious aspect of marriage where unmarried deities are and exception, and that single status dictates the powers of the particular deity (Harman, 1997). Most common in arranged marriage is the concern of similar social standings that include the class of both families, religion, and educational levels of the couple to be married (Chawla, 2007). To ensure proper genealogical diversity, families employed the services of sambhalas (match makers) to track the genealogical history of each family. Arranged marriages would not be permitted if the bride and groom shared familial relation of five to seven generations (Sur, 1973 as cited in Chawla, 2007). Even with current modernization, arranged marriages are still common practice, but research has displayed a growing disapproval of this practice.

Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Britain

Intergenerational marriages in nineteenth-century British culture was considered at he time to represent a creepy threat of incest invoked by a young woman marrying a man old enough to be her father (Carens, 2010). Esther Godfrey’s book titled The january-May Marriage in the Nineteenth-Century British Culture draws attention to the various methods in which relationships between young women and older men were viewed in Victorian times (Carens, 2010). Godfrey uses literature and artwork to disclose the concept of how some young women took advantage of aging males to obtain wealth, status, or the attraction of younger men (Godfrey, 2009 as cited in Carens, 2010). Another aspect of marriage in Victorian Britain is covered by Marcus (2007) who theorized that people of the Victorian era “savored various relationships between women as being central to femininity and supporting married life” (p. 1). Diversity in relationships was a fundamental aspect of Victorian England, and issues like lesbianism were acceptable in more respectable societies (Parker, 2007).

Conclusion

In regard to marriage and culture, there are many aspects that require evaluation. In many westernized, or modernized cultures marriage between two people is a symbol of the love and commitment that each person has toward the other. In some cultures, love has less value in marriage because families arrange marriages based on specific criteria of the culture. In Victorian times, marriage between an older man and a much younger woman was in some cased reviled, but acts like lesbianism were accepted in in higher respected society structure.

References

Carens, T. L. (2010). The january-may marriage in nineteenth-century british culture. Victorian Studies, 52(2), 314-316,348. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/366780844?accountid=35812

Chawla, D. (2007). I will speak out: Narratives of resistance in contemporary indian women's discourses in hindu arranged marriages. Women and Language, 30(1), 5-19. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/198829230?accountid=35812

Harman, W. (1997). From the margins of hindu marriage: Essays on gender, religion, and culture. The Journal of Asian Studies, 56(3), 816-818. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/230407217?accountid=35812

Parker, S. A. (2007). Between women: Friendship, desire, and marriage in victorian england. Choice, 45(1), 184-184. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/225743964?accountid=35812

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology

Introduction to Cross-Cultural Psychology

Cross-cultural psychology is a psychological practice that studies the cultural effects on human psychology that requires researchers to draw conclusions using samples from multiple cultures (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Human behavior shares similarities in basic terms of listening to others, sharing feelings, and behavioral traits. However, the differences of human behavior vary greatly. People develop individually base don factors like learning, environmental influence, familial influence, religious beliefs, and societal allegiances (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). According to (Shiraev & Levy, 2010) “Cross-cultural psychology s the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology” (p. 1).

Cross-cultural psychologists examine the psychological differences, and make comparisons of the underlying causes of these differences. Researchers examine various links between cultural norms and behaviors by comparing the possible dissimilar social and cultural forces that influence people within various cultures (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Human behavior is strongly influenced by various biological factors, and personal experiences. Culture is one of the most important factors that influence an individual’s behavior through culture-specific attributes shared by people of a culture in a particular geographic region (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

Definitions of Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

The genetic makeup of any individual provides a partial explanation and description of human behavior. Although human behavior is strongly affected by biological factors, all human behavior can be affected by individual experiences (Segall, Dasen, Berry & Poortinga, 2000). During an individual’s lifetime of experiences, cultural influence is regarded as a primary factor that shapes diversity in behavior. Shiraev and Levy (2010) refer to culture as a combination of various behaviors, symbols, and attitudes shared by large groups of people. These factors are communicated from generation to generation, vary depending on geographical location, and influence individual behavior across different regions.

The primary focus of cultural psychology is to discover the most important connections between culture and the psychological state of individuals living in a particular geographic region (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Cultural psychologists study specific behaviors, and the cultural environment in which the behavior is displayed (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). In contrast to cross-cultural psychology, cultural psychology studies the interaction of behaviors, and the specific cultural influences that drive those behaviors. Cross-cultural psychology focuses of the psychological differences of various cultures, and relies heavily on critical thinking, comparative studies, and demonstrating how cultural influences affect human behavior (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

The Relationship

When one compares cultural to cross-cultural psychology, it is easy to recognize that both disciplines study how culture influences individual behavior. Cultural psychology studies various cultural factors that influence individuals in a specific region, whereas cross-cultural psychology focuses on critical thinking and comparative research of psychological variations across different cultural populations. Although both disciplines contribute valuable data regarding human behavior, they use different approaches to understand and explain how culture effects individual psychological states (Singelis, 2000).

Cultural psychology research produces valuable data collected from different population centers. The data provided by this research is then used by cross-cultural psychologists to study, test, and compare against data from other studies (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The relationship between cultural and cross-cultural psychology permits researchers to produce data that explains how culture in influenced by individual processes like cognitions, information processing, and goals. This process also permits researchers to compare this data with data produced by studies that explain influences of interpersonal actions like communication, or social influences (Berry, 2004). This type of research produces valuable information that helps researchers gain a better understanding of cultural influence, psychological phenomenon, and interpersonal connections through methods of critical, comparative analysis of data spanning multiple cultures (Berry, 2004).

Importance of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is an important factor in cross-cultural psychology. Critical thinking provides researchers with specific methods of inquiry and problem-solving processes (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Most people are usually able to be swayed by subjective information rather than reliable fact and statistics provided by in-depth investigation (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Relying on critical thinking, researchers are less likely to produce bias perspectives, and more likely to produce sound evidence that supports varying hypotheses.

Most people attempt to explain and understand social phenomenon based on personal perspectives, and are more prone to interpret external information to satisfy personal mental schemas (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The problem with this process is that can create bias, and result in researchers ignoring reliable data. Critical thinking is a cognitive tool that provides psychologists with suggestions that promote careful thought, and help reduce use of biased data in cultural research (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

The Methodology

One primary factor is understanding diversity among varying regions, researchers must collect reliable evidence, verify facts, and collect data in an unbiased method (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Researchers use various methods to collect data, and various models of research to support theories that attempt to explain and predict human behavior. Research on these matters provides valuable data that helps people understand and control behavioral actions. Stuart (2005) states “psychology purports to be a behavioral science... the basic and applied literature of psychology must be anchored by research” (para. 5).

The desire of researchers to advance the study of multicultural behaviors, and the understanding of these behaviors requires using a variety of research methods to develop hypotheses regarding the differences of various cultures. Lacking this valuable information, researchers would be more likely to produce results based on biased assumptions regarding cultural influences on human behavior (Stuart, 2005). In order to produce solid research that interprets, predicts, and manages behavior, psychologists must rely on quantitive and qualitative data (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The quantitative approach requires researchers to use a comparative outlook when measuring human behavior, whereas qualitative approach is normally conducted in a natural experimental setting (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

Conclusion

The core  function of human existence is the ability to learn behaviors, habits, and traits throughout the entire lifespan. Individuals modify behavior based on factors like environmental, cultural, and interpersonal interactions. Cultural psychology studies the associations and influences of culture on individual behavioral patterns. Cross-cultural psychology studies the vast diversity of various cultures using critical and comparative methods. Although both methods study how culture effects behavior, cross-cultural psychology relies more on critical thinking to reduce the opportunity of providing biased study results. Both forms of study are equally important in understanding how culture influences individual behavior.

References

Berry, J. (2004). The psychological foundations of culture. Canadian Psychology, 45(4), 315-316. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220818428?accountid=35812

Segall, M.H., Dasen, P.R., & Berry, J.W., Poortinga, Y.H. (2000). Human behavior in global perspective: An introduction to cross-cultural psychology. Adolescence, 35(139), 603-603. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/195940053?accountid=35812

Shiraev, E. B. & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross-cultural psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Singelis, T.M. (2000). Some Thoughts on the Future of Cross-Cultural Social Psychology. JOURNAL OF CROSS-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY,, 31(1), 76-91. doi:10.1177/0022022100031001007

Stuart, R. (2005). Multiculturalism; Questions, Not Answers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(5), 576-578. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.576