Psychological Portfolio Presentation
Psychology has evolved from basic concepts of animal and human behavior to advanced, modern techniques of studying the human mind, and how various interactions and events influence behavior. The American Psychological Association formally recognizes 54 divisions or areas of interest groups within it’s organizational structure. These divisions include clinical and counseling psychology, which focuses on human behavior, and abnormalities like phobias and mental illnesses, environmental psychology, and industrial and organizational psychology (American Psychological Association, 2013). Although there are a wide variety of divisions within psychology, each division seeks to understand the basic assumptions of why people do what they do.
Behavioral Psychology
Behaviorism was the dominating paradigm in psychology between the 1920s to 1950s and emphasizes observable behaviors instead of thought and emotion (McLeod, 2007). Behaviorism operated with a variety of assumptions that focused on environmental influences on human behavior, theoretical research being supported by empirical data from controlled experimentation, and behavior is a result of stimulus (McLeod, 2007).
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) is one of the most noted influences on behavioral psychology. His works on animal experimentation, while in today’ s standards may seem crude, and even cruel, provided the scientific community with vast amounts of research data regarding animal and human behavior. One of the most infamous examples of behaviorist is the well documented experiment of “Pavlov’s Dogs”, which was developed from the concept that certain behaviors are inherent and not learned, meaning the behavior is a stimulus response (McLeod, 2007). In the experiment, the subjects would be presented with the stimulus (the bowl of food), which would produce the response of salivation from the subject.
Pavlov discovered that the subjects learned to associate the primary stimulus with a neutral stimulus (the lab assistant), which would produce the same response (McLeod, 2007).To further test this discovery of association and learning, Pavlov would use a bell as a neutral stimulus whenever the subjects were provided with the primary stimulus, and through association, the subjects learned to respond to the bell with the same reaction as they would the primary stimulus (McLeod, 2007).
Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology is a specialized field of psychology that uses an experimental and clinical approach based on the principles of theories regarding human learning and development, and the cognitive processes used to promote positive change in human behavior and thought (American Psychological Association, 2013). Cognitive psychology is commonly used for patients of all ages, and is applied in both individual, group, and family settings. Psychologists that specialize in cognitive psychology use clinical measures of human behaviors, concepts based on human learning and cognitive processing, empirically supported methods of treatment, and ongoing assessment and modification of treatment (American Psychological Association, 2013).
Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences, which suggests that individuals possess eight different autonomous intelligences in late 1970’s to 1980’s (Davis, Christodoulou, Seider, Gardner, 2012). Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory suggests that human intelligence is divided into different categories of linguistic, logical, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, naturalistic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligences. His theory infers that individuals draw from these various categories of intelligence to solve problems, and creation of various products that are relevant to the individuals societal background (Davis, Christodoulou, Seider, Gardner, 2012). Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, while not very popular in the psychological world, is popular in the field of education because it allows for the identification of different strengths and weaknesses of students, and directly contradicts the notion that human intelligence can only be measured through the individual’s IQ (Emory University, 2013).
Cognitive Psychology
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are based on Jean Piaget’s earlier work that focused on the development of moral thinking; however unlike Piaget, Kohlberg suggested that moral development went further than the two-stage theory suggested by Piaget (Crain, 1985). Kohlberg suggests that children experience six developmental stages, which are categorized into a three-stage process. The first stage consisting of the first two developmental stages, the second stage consisting of the third and fourth developmental stages, and the third stage consisting of the fifth and sixth developmental stages (Crain, 1985).
The first stage of Kohlberg’s theory, obedience and punishment orientation suggests that children assume that authoritative figures establish a rules which are to be unquestionably obeyed, and that failure to obey these set of rules will result in some form of punishment (Crain, 1985). The second stage of Kohlberg’s theory, individualism and exchange suggests that children establish a belief and recognition that there is more than one single correct view that is established by authoritative figures, and that different individuals present different viewpoints of what is right and wrong (Crain, 1985).
Humanistic Psychology
Jungian concepts of psychology provide insight into the psychological classifications of introvert and extrovert, and complexes and archetypes, and directed interest in religion and mysticism as enduring influences on the human psyche (Kirsch, 2000). One of the primary historical factors of humanistic psychology is its direct contrast to behavioral psychology, but a study by Steven Hayes in 2012 suggests that this perspective be reconsidered because of changes in processes involved in behavioral and cognitive therapies that involve humanistic topics (Hayes, 2012). Humanistic psychology focuses on the study of the whole person from the perspective of the observer and the person exhibiting the behavior, and how individuals are influenced by their own perceptions of self and attachments to experiences (Cortland University, n.d.).
Carl Jung (1875-1961) suggested the human psyche could be viewed in terms of consciousness and unconsciousness. The conscious being a representation what an individual knows, whereas the unconscious is the representation of the unknown (Walker, 2012). Jung divides the the unconscious into two different classifications of personal unconscious and collective unconscious. He suggests the collective unconscious to be both the oldest and the most primitive level of the psyche, and that the contents are inherited instead of being acquired through life experience (Walker, 2012). In contrast the consciousness develops from the unconscious, and is centered on the ego. The conscious changes over the lifespan of the individual, and separates from other functions associated with positive and negative influences (Walker, 2012). Another aspect of the conscious is the personal unconscious, which Jung suggests to be unique to the individual based on learned experiences (Walker, 2012).
Personality Theory
Karen Horney (1885-1952) is revered as a woman ahead of her time, and an individual that made very important contributions to psychodynamic thought (Allpsych Online, 1999). During a time when psychology was dominated by males, and the Freudian thought of behavior, Karen Horney displayed a strong resolve for her disagreements with the prevailing psychological perspective of women, and forever changed how psychology viewed gender differences (Allpsych Online, 1999).
Horney’s theory of personality included a detailed study of neurotic personality, which focused on human relationships. Her perspective that people developed a maladaptive personality from stressful experiences during childhood, and that individuals suffering from relationship insecurities react with behaviors that eventually drive other people away (Allpsych Online, 1999).
Horney’s personality theory is based upon three interaction types that people learn in childhood. The first suggests that children who experience high levels of anxiety ad feelings of helplessness will move toward others for acceptance and help (Allpsych Online, 1999). The second suggests that individuals suffering from anxiety or insecurities will project their internal hostilities toward other people in an attempt to validate their own feelings (Allpsych Online, 1999). The third suggests that individuals form maladaptive households develop a defense mechanism to block both the negative and positive aspects of relationships with other people (Allpsych Online, 1999).
Social Psychology Theories
Gordon Allport (1897-1967) best described social psychology as the study of how individual thoughts, behaviors, and feelings are influenced by his or her perceptions of others (Cherry, 2013). Social psychologists use scientific methods to study topics like aggression, conformity, prejudice, nonverbal behavior, group behavior, and social perception in order to understand social behavior (Cherry, 2013). Allport suggested that individuals are driven by a need to reduce tension, and establish new tensions. He believed that people are capable of adapting behaviors to foster positive change and personal growth (McGraw Hill, 2002). Allport’s theory is based on the basic belief that personality is a combination of central traits that represent a number of specific traits, and a cardinal trait which is the individual’s dominant trait (Allpsych Online, 1999). Allport’s theory suggests that both the central and cardinal traits of an individual develop as a result of childhood environmental influences, and that these traits become less reliant on these influences as the individual ages (Allpsych Online, 1999).
Another important study of social psychology was the obedience experiment performed by Stanley Milgram (1933-1984). Milgram’s study was designed to emulate a learning experiment, but the design of the study was to determine how obedient test subjects would be when placed in a position of following orders from an authoritative figure (McLeod, 2007). Future studies demonstrating the power of social situations like the 1971 simulated prison experiment also provide insight as to how individual behaviors can be determined by social situations (American Psychological Association, 2004). Both the Milgram experiment and the Stanford prison experiment produced data that suggests that the behavior of average, healthy individuals can be profoundly changed, and that the same individuals are receptive and responsive to authoritative figures who provide direction that contradicts the individual’s normal behavior (American Psychological Association, 2004).
Learning Theories
Understanding learning theories is the foundation of understanding the various methods that individuals lean, and why learning styles differ from person to person. Although there are several theories about various learning styles, there is a lack of empirical evidence that suggests personal learning preferences have a direct influence on learning results (Cherry, 2013).
One learning theory from Neil Fleming suggests that individual learning occurs through four different modalities; Visual, Aural/Auditory, Read/Write, and Kinesthetic (Fleming, 2001). The VARK modalities are not designed to be viewed as a complete learning style, but rather a description of the attributes, characteristics, and components that influence an individual’s ability to learn (Fleming, 2001). This model attempts to differentiate between the various methods of learning, and which methods work best on an individual basis. The VARK model suggests that an individual naturally attracted to movies, pictures, or technical diagrams would be considered a visual learner, whereas an individual naturally attracted to music, discussion, or lectures would be considered an auditory learner (Fleming, 2001).
In addition to visual and auditory learners, the VARK model accounts for two more primary methods of learning. Individuals attracted to reading, taking notes, or creating lists would be considered reading and writing learners, whereas individuals attracted to physical movement, experimentation, and hand-on activities would be considered kinesthetic learners (Fleming, 2001).
Theories I Prefer
For this section of the assignment I had to make choices based on my goals of working with children and young adults infected with HIV, and consider what theories would best apply to understanding how children and young adults think, adapt to life-changing situations, and what methods of treatment would be most effective in this process.
Theory One – Jean Piaget
I chose Jean Piaget (1896-1980) as one of the theories I like because of his theory that children and adults were not different in regard to intelligence, but rather the method of thought. He suggested that human intelligence was divided into four broad scales of sensori-motor, preoperational operations, concrete operations, and formal operations (Feldman, 2004). Piaget’s theory infers that the first two years of human development are the crucial years of an individual’s intellectual development, and will provide a template for all following stages of development (Feldman, 2004). The key concepts of of Piaget’s theory are schemas, assimilation, and accommodation. Schemas describe both mental and physical actions related to understanding and knowledge that help individuals interpret and understand his or her surroundings. Assimilation describes the process of which an individual acquires and merges new information into existing schemas, and accommodation is the process of which new information is processed and makes changes to existing schemas (Feldman, 2004).
Theory Two – Carl Rogers
My second choice is Carl Rogers (1902-1987) who based a great deal of his works on the theories of Abraham Maslow. Building on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Rogers suggested that elements of genuineness, acceptance, and empathy must be present for positive personal growth (McLeod, 2007). Rogers suggested that all individuals function on the basic motive to self-actualize, or fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of self awareness possible (McLeod, 2007). Rogers theory identifies five characteristics of a fully functional individual; openness to experiences, existential living, trust in one’s feelings, personal creativity, and satisfaction or fulfillment with one’s life (McLeod, 2007). Rogers theory also suggests three components related to self concept; self worth, self-image, and ideal self. Self worth is the basis of an individual’s level of self-esteem, or how one thinks about themselves. Self0image is how individuals see themselves in both the physical image and inner personality, and ideal self is the conceptualization of the person and individual would like to achieve based on goals and ambitions (McLeod, 2007).
Theories I do not Prefer
Choosing theories that I did not favor was a difficult task because so many aspects of psychology are interlinked with multiple theories and perspectives. Based on my goals of psychology, I had to consider which theories were least likely to be favored as acceptable methods for my chosen path.
Theory One – Sigmund Freud
My first choice of theories I do not favor would be those of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Although Sigmund Freud was considered a pioneer and creator of early psychoanalytic processes, his theory of sexual stages of development tend to be outdated, and easily rebutted by modern-day scientific standards (Purdue University, 2002). Freud’s work studying the human mind, abnormal psychological states, and nervous diseases were primarily based in biological models, and his theories lacked sustainability of empirical psychological evidence (Purdue University, 2002). Freud’s theories of sexual deviance and psychosexual stages of development were even acknowledged by Freud in his first lecture, A Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, where he discussed the difficulties of lacking empirical evidence, reliance on verbal communication or the “verbal cure” based on the personal nature of sexual drives (Purdue University, 2002).
Theory Two – Howard Gardner
My second choice for least favored theory is that of Howard Gardner. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences suggests a psychological theory that an individual can not be born with a single intelligence, and that human intelligence is divided into eight smaller, unique intelligences (Emory University, 2013). While popular in the educational field, Gardner’s theories are not based on similar test correlations as other intelligence modules. Gardner does suggest that all humans are born with all off the smaller intelligences, but as a result of genetics and environmental influences, no two people share the same intelligence profile (Emory University, 2013).
Personal Conclusion
My personal conclusion is that psychology is a field that offers a wide array of specialized services, and those who choose a path in psychology are faced with a myriad of different theories to choose from. An individual choosing to pursue a career in psychology must determine which aspects of the field are of most interest on a personal level, and which theories present the strongest and weakest arguments for his or her chosen interest. Whether it be working with people suffering from terminal illness, or gaining a better understanding of how environmental influences case certain behaviors in social settings, psychology has a foundation that has evolved rapidly over the past 50 years. I conclude that individual choice, and preference are the basic foundations of psychological sciences, and that the drive to improve upon existing theories, will continue to push advancements across the various divisions of psychology.
Influences on the Future of Psychology
Psychology is a science, and by definition will continue to make advancements. As with any form of scientific study, old theories, empirical data, and historical milestones will be built upon by new ideas, methods of understanding, and theories related to human behavior. Technology combined with the basic human desire for knowledge will provide new avenues of studying the human mind, causes of illnesses, and treatments that are yet to be conceptualized. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) demonstrated that behavior can be attributed to both direct and neutral stimuli, and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) suggested that human behavior is attributed to a basic hierarchy of needs. From these two theories alone, numerous concepts and theories of human behavior were introduced, and new technologies provided a wide array of opportunities for research.
Just as new theories and ideas of behavior evolved from the earliest theories, so shall new theories evolve from what we understand today. Advancements in technology will provide clearer understanding of how the human brain functions, and continued research will provide more detailed information on maladaptive thoughts and behaviors. During the World War I and II, soldiers experienced tremendous traumas related to warfare, but at the time there was no clear understanding of what we now term post traumatic stress disorder. A few decades of scientific advancement provided individuals suffering from severe trauma not only with a recognized condition supported by empirical data, but also an understanding of the condition and methods of which to treat it.
How Psychology Influences My Worldview
“Never let the future disturb you. You will meet it, if you have to, with the same weapons of reason which today arm you against the present.” – Marcus Aurelious
I do not believe that the courses I have taken, and will continue to take have or will change my worldview. I believe at the core of humanity is an inherent animal instinct that drives humanity in regard to basic need. At the core, mankind is still an animal, and by definition prone to unpredictable behavior. I believe that societal differences will endure the utopian desire of human unity, and that these differences will, at least for the foreseeable future, continue to divide various cultures and belief systems around the world. I believe that realism, and an expectation that humans will continue to display both the best and worst the our core nature has to offer is a best case scenario. I believe that the root of humanity is an inherent drive to achieve greatness, yet there is also a darker side that seeks to dwell in the shadows of obscurity.
Creation of this Presentation: Creative or Critical
I believe the creation of this presentation is a combination of both the creative and critical thought processes. To deviate from normal theoretical views, I used a creative collection of theorists from different disciplines of psychology, and provided a detailed review of supporting data for each theory. Some theories which are dominated by people like Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), Carl Jung (1875-1961), or B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) were also influenced by people who are less often discussed by students because they choose not to deviate from popular perception. Introducing theories from individuals like Karen Horney (1885-1952) requires both a creative desire and critical drive to seek alternate sources of influence.
Conclusion
In conclusion, I suggest the field of psychology is an ever-evolving science that focuses on the reasons behind human behavior. Psychology is a vast field with multiple divisions and subdivisions that all engage in the pursuit of researching, understanding, and treating various human conditions, whether they be a result of injury to the brain, environmental influences, or sociocultural in nature. Psychology will continue to evolve as long as people have an inherent desire to expand knowledge, and technology permits for more in-depth research techniques and treatments. Psychology as a science may not change the world, but it will give individuals unique perspectives and understandings of what being human is all about.
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