John R. Stafford
Brandman University
Abstract
Life cycle stages are a concept used by researchers and clinicians to delineate the different phases of the human lifespan. By breaking up the lifespan into separate steps, we can explore and identify specific markers of each level that influences an individual’s growth and development. In turn, this exploration and understanding aids researchers in understanding human interactions and coping mechanisms on a larger scale of family and societal interactions.
Keywords: Human Development, Life Cycle, Infancy, Childhood, Adolescence, Adulthood
The human lifespan matures over several phases, simplified as early childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Each of these steps has key milestones and markers that influence how an individual perceives events and interactions with others, how he or she will react when faced with difficult choices and life events, and how he or she will carry on societal, cultural and familial rituals. Understanding how an individual develops unlocks the greater understanding of how personal experiences shape the overall functioning of the individual, the family, and wider societal functions (Mintz, Moores, & Moores, n.d.).
Childhood Stages
Early and middle childhood is a bonding and learning stage. It is a time where a child is wholly reliant on parental interaction for survival and nurturing. It is a stage in life where the individual is not entirely self-aware, or capable of performing basic tasks taken for granted in later stages of life. Eating, using a restroom, walking, and talking are all simple tasks that are new to babies in the formative years, and becomes easier as he or she learns through various methods of trial, error, and learning. It is also a time in a child’s life where nutrition and proper care are critical aspects of development (Johnson, 1990). Children in the preschool ages one to five years of age experience significant postnatal neurologic and cognitive development (Rosales, Reznick, & Zeisel, 2009). Poor nutrition before and during birth can contribute to the various health and developmental issues like childhood obesity (Zwiauer, 2003), and cognitive development (Rosales, Reznick, & Zeisel, 2009). As children age, nutrition remains a major factor in higher development functions related to verbal ability, cognitive capacity, and physical strength (Rosales, Reznick, & Zeisel, 2009).
Nutrition, while directly linked to developmental aspects of children’s lives is also attributed to the cultural and economic history of the family. For example, poorer children in school may have to rely on lunch programs for nourishment, whereas children from upper-middle-class families may bring lunch provided by a parent, or afford to buy lunch from the school cafeteria (McGodlrick, Carters, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Additionally, cultural influences may place restrictions on dietary intake a child can have. Some cultures restrict consumption of certain foods like pork or beef or promote a higher intake of vegetables and fruits that make eating from the school cafeteria more difficult (Rosales, Reznick, & Zeisel, 2009).
Childhood is also a time where children begin to develop an identity both of self and within their surroundings. The process varies depending on cultural and societal differences and can start as early as infancy. Gillespie, & Petersen (2012) assert that rituals are events that signify particular actions associated with emotionally significant events or transitions that deepen connections and relationships. Some cultures like that of Jewish, Christian, and many others start at infancy by performing rituals like baptism, circumcision, and christenings (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013), and in later years by starting preschool and transitioning to elementary school (Gillespie, & Petersen, 2012). Parents, family, and friends also take a more passive role in identity development by the choices in colors, toys, and clothing provided to the child in the earliest stages.
Developing habits in early childhood is beneficial because they provide a constant and predictable set of events that provide stability to both the parent and the child (Gillespie, & Petersen, 2012; McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). As the child ages, eating patterns, playtime, and bedtime aid the child to develop skills associated with self-regulation by providing a routine associated with these events (Gillespi, & Petersen, 2012). Although this process may vary based on individual needs, the familiar pattern of consistent events provides children with a stable framework or normality, which will benefit the child as he or she starts school and engaging in other social interactions (Gillespi, & Peteresen, 2012).
Another aspect of identity is one of gender. Although gender identity meets with heated emotion from religious and cultural beliefs, research on sex differentiation is both long-standing and ongoing. Martin, Ruble, & Szkrybalo (2002) state that “observations of gender typing in children as young as 5-years old led researchers to examine how socialization process in the home might contribute to this early acquisition of gender-linked behavior” (p.1). Process inside the home are not the only factors in gender differentiation. Social justice issues and other external influences inside the preschool environment also affects children’s choices of exploration, who they play with, and how they may identify themselves (Solomon, n.d.) It is fair to note that gender differentiation and sexual attraction or preference are not the same.
A stable family life is integral to childhood development. While some argue that the “nuclear family” model is the most healthy environment for infants and young children, research is emerging that indicates that children raised in alternative family situations experience similar psychological and physical growth (McGodlrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Family structure, stability, and a nurturing environment are the most important aspects of childhood development. A child raised in a low-income household with an alcoholic parent who abuses his wife or children is less likely to be as outgoing, accepting, and psychologically balanced as a child raised in a middle-class household with a loving and supportive single parent (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Children raised in volatile environments tend to be more withdrawn and have more problematic behaviors than those raised in stable environments.
Adolescence Stages
Another significant period of development is adolescence. It is a transitional time between childhood and adulthood where a young boy or girl begins to experience cognitive, psychosocial, and physical changes associated with rituals and different levels of social responsibility and interactions (Morelli, & Zupanick, n.d.). A child who is entering adolescence begins a period of emotional turmoil resulting from chemical changes in the neurological system. It is also a time where familial conflicts arise between the child and parents, grandparents, and siblings as he or she seeks more independence and autonomy in their lives (Morelli, & Zupanick, n.d; McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). However, in other cultures adolescence may be an overlooked lifecycle stage because children become adults earlier in life, and enter the workforce to help support the family of origin, and even start families of their own (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Adolescence is also a time where experiences and confusion associated with gender identity and sexual attraction surface. Gender identity relates to the gender a person identifies as (Science Daily, 2015), whereas sexual attraction or preference refers to the impulses and emotions associated with being attracted to someone else sexually (Fugère, 2016). These issues can often be associated with extreme behavioral problems like depression and anxiety because the person does not know how family and friends will react to his or her feelings or self-image. For example, a child raised in a nuclear family structure based heavily on religion may have higher levels of anxiety about being Gay, Lesbian or Transgender than his or her counterparts raised in an agnostic household more accepting in nature (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
While evident in elementary school, social status becomes more prevalent in adolescence. It is a time where adolescents seek approval from peers and struggle to find acceptance with older teens in their environment (Morelli, & Zupanick, n.d.). In some cases, acceptance of peers is a substitute for parental guidance and acceptance in the home that can lead teens to destructive patterns of drinking, drug use, and delinquent affiliations that may require intervention or treatment (Brodie, 2009). While acceptance is one factor in delinquency in teens, other factors include economic stability, parental guidance, and abuse. “In 2014, 1.1% of all persons age 12 or older (3 million persons) experienced at least one violent victimization” (Bureau of Justice Statistics, n.d., p1). Further estimates indicate that between 2009 – 2013 Child Protective Services agencies reported 63,000 sexual abuse claims that held substantial evidence. Of those, one in nine girls and one in 53 boys under the age of 18 experienced sexual (National Family Safety Program, NGHA, n.d.) abuse or assault by an adult (RAINN, 2016).
Teens raised in lower socioeconomic and culturally different families also have certain disadvantages than their upper-class and middle-class peers (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). These problems include education and access to contraceptives (Brown, & Eisenberg, 1995), lowered self-esteem (Veselska, Geckova, Gajosova, Orosova, Dijik, & Reijneveld, 2009), health issues, education, and family well-being (American Psychological Association, n.d.). Although socioeconomic and cultural differences vary, it is important to take note of the variations. Self-esteem problems appear more in poor Black families than in upper or middle-class White households (Valeska, et al., 2009), and teenage pregnancy and education is higher in Hispanic and Black families than their Asian or Jewish counterparts (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Sex education and teen pregnancy are one of the most critical issues facing teens. A 2015 survey performed by the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention indicates that 41% of students in America have not had sexual intercourse, while 30% had sexual intercourse within a 3-month period. Of that 43 % did not use a condom, 14% did not use any form of birth control, and 21% were under the influence of alcohol or drugs at the time of intercourse (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017). Furthermore, the same survey indicated that only 10% of those students received testing for HIV. A report released by the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services shows that in 2014 teen birth rates dropped from 26.5 in 2013 to 24.2 in 2014 and that nearly 89% of those occurred outside of marriage (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2016). While this is a sharp decline, the implications of these numbers correlate with unwed mothers (and fathers) dropping out of school to raise children, and additional stressors on already taxed family infrastructures to assist in rearing babies of teen mothers (McGodlrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Adulthood Stages
Reaching adulthood is a milestone in the human lifecycle often accompanied with rituals associated with rituals associated with graduation, starting a family, and elevation in social status. It is a time where young adults begin implementing plans for the future. Whether this is moving away from the family of origin to begin college, start a family of their own, or starting a job and moving into a place of their own (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). However, these immediate plans do not always come to fruition. In some cases, leaving home is not a viable option for young adults. He or she might stay home to assist with taking care of siblings, and older family member (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013), financial difficulties (Goldsheider, Hofferth, & Curtain, 2014), or single parenthood requiring childcare assistance from older family members.
In lower-income and minority families, it may be more common for young adults to stay home out of family-first loyalty. This type of behavior is more common in Hispanic, Black, and Italian families than their White or Jewish counterparts (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Carter (2012) asserts that 40% of young adults are less likely to move to a new state and the percentage of young adults in their 20’s living at home doubled between 1980 and 2008. Although staying at home may produce benefits, there are also deficits in the adjustment of the family of origin. Issues like living as adjusting household rules to accommodate both the family and young adult can cause turmoil resulting in arguments (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013), defining household responsibilities, and reducing the financial burden on the parents (Carter, 2012).
Under the nuclear family model, there is an expectation that young adults have established a family and life away from the family of origin before reaching middle adulthood. However, changes in modern culture have demonstrated that the nuclear model is antiquated (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Women are placing more emphasis independence by attending college or establishing a career before starting a family, or becoming single mothers before getting married (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Additionally, the rise of alternative-lifestyle families is changing the landscape and meaning of the nuclear family. LGBTQ families and single-parent families are becoming more common. While these new family structures rise, there are complications of establishing equality and recognition in society (Elizur, & Ziv, 2001). Additionally, increase in divorce rates factor heavily in newer family models. Commonly, divorce results in single mothers raising children, which may place unusually high financial difficulties on the household. These challenges may require the single mother to seek outside assistance programs, or ask for help from family members for childcare or living arrangements (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
The transition from young adulthood to mid-adulthood, traditionally marked by milestones of having established family, career, and home. It also marks a point in life where the family of origin has adjusted to the extended family and transitioned relationships with children to that of friendship and peers (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). Mid-adulthood is also a period where individuals and families begin to consolidate careers and concerns about establishing and guiding younger generations take a higher priority. It is common for people in mid-adulthood to refocus efforts on family unity and interaction with ongoing commitment, and preserve and pass down cultural values to younger generations (Malone, Liu, Vaillant, Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016). This period also involves preparation for family concerns for older-generational needs. In many cases, older generations are entering retirement, experiencing health issues, and dying, which places additional stressors on the family (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Old Age Stages
Transitioning to old age is a period referred to as the wisdom stage (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-preto, 2013). This shift adds additional stressors related to health problems, retirement, and eventual death. For many people reaching old age, retirement is not as feasible as for others. Adults from poorer classes often find that they are required to work longer; sometimes up to a point where they can no longer work due to illness (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). This realization often results in some form of destructive behaviors like increased drinking, smoking, and drug use (Hagger-Johnson, Carr, Murray, Stansfeld, Shelton, & Head, 2017). The combination of stressors and behavioral dysfunction also leads to mental disorders like depression and anxiety, which are prominent in people of older ages (Seeley, Manitsas, & Gau, 2016). However, retirement is not the only factor in addressing mental dysfunction in elderly adults. Loss of mental capacity, physical problems resulting in the need for increased care (Seeley, Manitsas, & Gau, 2016), and loss of loved ones are determining factors researchers need to address (McGodlrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Adults not experiencing problems of old age are likely to find satisfaction in their golden years. Many make plans to retire and move to a new location, buy a motorhome and begin a more transient lifestyle, travel globally, or foster deeper relations with younger family members (Grish, 2011). Older adults may find that by shedding the responsibilities of middle age provides them the ability to spend more time for increased intimate relationships with their partners (Stein, 2017). Others may focus on activities they were not able to do in their younger years like skydiving or scuba diving, buying a motorcycle, or other adrenalin raising activities (Woodhead, Blackett, & Hollaender, 2013). Additionally, many older adults enjoy the rewards associated with being the elders of the family and societal structures (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013). They invest time in sharing the history of cultural and societal value to younger generations, spending time with, and even assisting in limited parental interactions like summer camping trips with grandchildren. Many decisions made by and for older adults relies on cultural history. Asian and Hispanic cultures are more likely to include elderly family members in the same residence as younger family members while many European cultures favor independence (McGoldrick, Carter, & Garcia-Preto, 2013).
Conclusion
The lifecycle development process is one filled with many experiences. As individuals, people experience similar aspects of growth and development from birth to death. Although life experiences share similarities, they are unique in many ways. Children are taught to explore, grown, and develop physically and mentally, but cultural, societal, and economic differences result in variations that make their progression through the lifecycle a single path leading to differences that shape individual outcomes. The only assurance people have is that death is the inevitable end to the journey. Hence it is the responsibility for all to pass down their experiences and knowledge so that younger generations will learn cultural and societal history, and build upon that knowledge to create a new and exciting future for the generations that follow.
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