Theoretical Approaches to Personality Analysis

 Theoretical Approaches to Personality Analysis

            Studying human personality can be done through various approaches. Researchers rely on the validity and core values of the chosen theoretical model used to study human personality, and must determine which theoretical model best fits the study. Choosing a particular theory or model to study human personality requires the researcher to use methods that he or she is comfortable with, and that will support his or her research in the best manner. When taking into consideration the different theories used to research human personality, one must take into account the differences in the basic theories, how and when the theories were developed, the basic assumptions, validity, and application of each of the theoretical models.

            Theoretical models are not the only factor researchers must take into account when studying human personality. Researchers must be able to determine whether or not the behavior being studied is deterministic or based on the free-will of the individual or individuals being studied. Researchers must also take into account other factors like environmental, ethnic history, social background, and childhood experiences. Other factors to be accounted for include the individual’s awareness of self, and the conscious and unconscious motives that drive the individual’s behavior.

Personality and Situational Behavior

            Learning theory emphasizes the process of how individuals learn and implement behavioral changes or potential changes (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Learning theory suggests that an individual will behave according to environmental, cognitive, and behavioral factors (Stone, 2011). Behavioral consistency depends in part on the definition of consistency. Absolute consistency requires that an individual displays the same behavior across time and situations (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010). Because there is little evidence that supports the existence of absolute consistency outside of cases of severe psychopathology or coma, absolute consistency is not a viable research model (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010). A more viable expectation of consistency is rank-order consistency. Researchers often focus on rank-order consistency because it provides a stable model of individual differences, and points to the coherence of human personality (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010). Rank-order consistency requires the individual to enact behaviors that remain at the same levels in relation to other behaviors, and accounts for changes in absolute levels (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010). Ipsative consistency is another model that highlights the importance of the situation, and emphasizes that an individual will change what he or she is doing while moving from one situation to the next (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010).

            Researchers studying human personality often use trait rating systems to predict particular behaviors or interests. Rank-order consistency can be used to study behavior across various times and contexts, and the results used as evidence for cross-contextual influences on human personality (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010). Researchers must also account for variations in consistency from person to person that relate to the degree to which people consistently respond to situations over time and contexts. Researchers must also discover what underlying personality traits are associated with the individual differences in consistency (Sherman, Nave, & Funder, 2010).

Learning Theory

            Learning theory suggests that individual behavior is directed by environmental, cognitive, and behavioral factors. (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Bandura refers to this influence as self-efficacy, and suggests that an individual’s level of self-efficacy influences how an individual will react to any given situation (Bandura, 1997 as cited in Stone, 2011). Although self-efficacy is a strong influence on human behavior, other factors like environment, previous behavioral patterns, and other variables like personal expectations also influence individual behavior (Feist, & Feist, 2009). According to the behaviorist theory, individuals learn by trail and error (Stone, 2011). It also suggests that an individual will explore different behaviors until they discover a behavior that produces a reinforcing effect (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Learning theory also suggests that individuals apply previous experiences in the development of expectancies and reward values associated with similar situations (Feist, & Feist, 2009).

            Before an individual produces certain behavior toward a new situation, he or she reviews similar experiences to determine the best possible action and chooses an action that will produce a similar outcome (Stone, 2011). Some learning theories suggest that humans are passive learners and respond to environmental influences (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Cognitive learning theory suggests that humans are rational thinkers, and that complex thought processes aid in determining individual behavior (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Rotter suggested  (as cited in Feist, & Feist, 2009) that situational behavior involved certain variables: “expectancy, behavior potential, reinforcement, and the psychological situation” (p. 544). He believed that individual situational behavior is a combination of the level of influence of the individual need and expectation of reinforcement (Feist, & Feist, 2009).

Humanistic Theory

            In contrast to learning theory, the humanist approach suggests learning is related to a personal act designed to fulfill individual potential (McLeod, 2007). Humanism suggests that individual actions in situational behavior depends on the actuated potential of the individual (McLeod, 2007). Humanistic theory surmises that individuals have affective and cognitive needs that influence how the individual will respond to a certain situation. When an individual is in a cooperative and supportive environment, he or she is more likely to learn to react appropriately to various situations (McLeod, 2007). Responses to certain situations are a result of the individual’s needs and expectations in regard to the situation. Ultimately, the individual will respond in a manner that is directly related to satisfying needs, or achieving needs or goals for which the individual aspires (McLeod, 2007).

Personality Characteristics

            Learning theories suggest that individual personalities are a combination of learned experiences of the individual’s lifespan. Kelly surmised that an individual’s present awareness influences the development of human personality based on anticipation of specific events, and that individual actions are a product of such influences (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Genetics are also thought to play a significant role in individual personality development. Genetic variances influence unique personality traits, but environment is a primary factor in personality development (Feist, & Feist, 2009).  Skinner related personality as “at best a repertoire of behavior imparted by an organized set of contingencies” (Skinner, 1974 as cited in Stone, 2011, para. 5). Bandura suggested that human nature is “self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing” (Feist, & Feist, 2009, p. 486 as cited in Stone, 2011, para. 6), and that observational learning gives individuals the ability to learn without performing behaviors. Rotter surmised that the personal history of experiences influence the development of individual personality and goals whereas Mischel suggested that human behavior is the result of interaction of various personality traits and situations (Feist, & Feist, 2009).

            The humanistic theory suggests that humans have an inherent drive that motivates personal development, and that individuals place less importance on environmental influences when making decisions (Boeree, 1997). Humanists emphasize the importance of free-will as a major factor in development of human personality, and individual drives for self-actualization provides a motivating factor in personality development (Boeree, 1997). The humanistic approach suggests that individuals make choices and play an active role in the development of his or her personality (Stone, 2011). May theorized that three primary relationships form the foundation of personality. These three relationships are the individual’s relationship with his or her environment, the individual’s relationship with other individuals, and the individual’s relationship with oneself. The influence of the three relationships influences the ongoing development on the individual’s personality (Feist, & Feist, 2009).

Interpersonal Relations

            Learning theory suggests that individuals interact with others because they receive some form of reinforcement or reward associated with the interaction (Feist, & Feist, 2009). In the early development of man-kind, people formed groups to provide protection from enemies, environmental factors, and other animals (Stone, 2011). Today people continue to form similar associations because of inherent reinforcers related to the same behaviors (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Individuals also continue to maintain associations based on reinforcements or rewards that they receive from the group environment (Feist, & Feist, 2009). In contrast, humanistic theory suggests that while people have an inherent drive to interact with others and engage in productive relationships, they are ultimately alone (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggests that an individual has inherent drives that motivates him or her to achieve a feeling of love and belongingness by creating friendships, intimate relationships, and associations with other people (Feist, & Feist, 2009). Rogers suggested that positive childhood experiences influences positive self-regard and promotes psychological growth (Boeree, 1997).

Conclusion

            Human behavior and personality has numerous theories that provide researchers with abundant possibilities in studying personality and behavior. Learning theories attempt to define human learning, behavior, and personality as a product of an individual’s environment combined with certain internal influences. Humanistic theories emphasize the influence of inherent human drives, and the motivation of achieving an a higher level of self-awareness unique to human development. These differing perspectives attempt to provide answers to how personality influences situational behavior, how personality is characterized in relation to human nature, and interpersonal relationships.

References

Boeree, C. G. (1997). Personality Theories. Retrieved from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/rogers.html

Feist, J. & Feist, G. J. (2009). Theories of personality (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

McLeod, S. (2007). Simply Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/humanistic.html

Stone, D. (2011) Psychological Musings. Retrieved from http://psychological-musings.blogspot.com.au/2011/05/personality-analysis.html

Sherman, R. A., Nave, C. S., & Funder, D. C. (2010). Situational similarity and personality predict behavioral consistency. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 99(2), 330-343. doi:10.1037/a0019796