Social Structure Theory: Prostitution
Among Immigration Routes
Prostitution is a
terrible reality for many women seeking to escape their current sociocultural
situation
that often includes poverty, abuse, and other factors that force the
individual to make the decision to
escape in hope of finding a better life
(University of Phoenix, 2013). Although many women are faced
to engage in
prostitution as a means of repayment to traffickers, there are also those who
try to gain
illegal entry into another country on their own and are forced to
resort to similar means of earning
money to survive (University of Phoenix,
2013).
According to
University of Phoenix Prostitution along immigration routes video (2013) “We
know that
worldwide there is talk of the feminization of immigration, and 54%
of immigrants throughout the
world are women.” One of the most common
immigration problems in the United States is illegal
crossing through the
Senora Desert region of Mexico, which contains a 30-mile area notorious for
brothels and nightclubs where female immigrants work as prostitutes to pay
human traffickers
(University of Phoenix, 2013). Sadly, many of these women
will suffer from exposure to fatal sexually
transmitted diseases or forced into
slavery, and will never complete their journey (University of
Phoenix, 2013).
It is estimated that 460 illegal immigrants died crossing the desert from
Mexico to the
United Sates in 2005 alone (University of Phoenix, 2013).
Social Structure Theory
The social structure theory
is a primary theory used by criminologists because it suggests and supports the
hypothesis that crime rates vary based on different elements of a social
structure (Seigel, 2000). It also suggests that society influences changes in
the various reasons that crimes are committed, and criminality is related to
various social interactions (Siegel, 2000). According to Siegel (2000) “Social
structure theories suggest people’s places in the socioeconomic structure
influence their chances of becoming a criminal.” (para 2). This theory suggests
that individuals from challenged socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to
become criminals as a means to obtain financial or social success because they
lack the opportunities that others may have (Siegel, 2000). There are three
different sub-theories that make the social structure theory: Social
disorganization, structural strain, and cultural deviance theories.
Social
Disorganization
According to Bursik (1998) as
cited in the U.S. Department of Justice (2013), “Social disorganization is
defined as an inability of community members to achieve shared values or to
solve jointly experiences problems (para. 1). The social disorganization theory
suggests that living conditions of the individual or group of individuals
directly influence the decision to commit crimes like prostitution, theft,
burglary, and potentially more violent crimes like rape or murder (Siegel,
2000). It is suggested that social disorganization is most common in community
settings with a high level of transient populations, poor living conditions,
and higher than average mixes of ethnic diversity (U.S. Department of Justice,
2013). One method of reducing social disorganization is to develop a sense of
community among the residents. This is accomplished when members of the
community become acquainted with each other and develop programs like
neighborhood watches, and programs designed to promote a positive growth environment
for the local children (U.S. Department of Justice, 2013).
Structural
Strain
The structural strain theory
was developed by Robert Merton (1910-2003) based on the functionalist
perspective of deviance (Crossman, 2013). Merton’s theory suggests that societal
deviance is the result of tensions caused by differences in cultural goals, and
the socioeconomic means needed for people to achieve their goals (Crossman,
2013). The social strain theory is characterized by the cultural and social
structure of society, and the combination of culturally accepted goals and
means (Crossman, 2013). The cultural aspect of society establishes guidelines
and goals for individuals, whereas the social structure either provides or
fails to provide the means for individuals to achieve the goals established by
society (Crossman, 2013). Structural strain occurs when the societal goals and
social structure are incapable of balancing, which results in deviant behavior
(Crossman, 2013).Merton’s structural strain theory also suggests that
individuals are placed into one of five different categories; conformists,
ritualists, innovators, retreatists, and rebels (Crossman, 2013).
Individuals are categorized
according to his or her relationship to the cultural and societal goals and means
of achieving those goals (Crossman, 2013). Individuals categorized as
conformists are comfortable with the cultural and societal goals, and the
accepted means of attaining them (Crossman, 2013). Individuals categorized as
innovators are recognized as accepting the cultural and societal goals, but
disagree with the accepted norms of achieving the goals (Crossman, 2013). These
individuals respectfully follow the societal rules, and are usually successful
and respected members of society (Crossman, 2013). Individuals in the ritualist
classification do not believe in the cultural or societal goals; however, they
do conform to the means for attaining the goals, even though they do not
support them (Crossman, 2013). Individuals in the retreatist classification are
viewed as people who reject the cultural and societal goals, and the accepted
means to attain them. Examples of these individuals would be alcoholics, those
from transient populations, and people who exclude themselves from social
interaction (Crossman, 2013). Those classified as rebels reject established
cultural and societal goals, and the normal means of attaining those goals.
These individuals commonly replace the goals of society, and the means of
attaining the substituted goals they have set themselves (Crossman, 2013).
Cultural
Deviance
According to Crossman (2013)
“Deviant behavior is any behavior considered contrary to the dominant norms of
society.” (para. 1). There are several theories associated with cultural
deviance; labeling theory, social control theory, and differential association
theory (Crossman, 2013). The first theory is the labeling theory, which is
considered one of the most important theories applied to understanding deviant
and criminal behavior. A primary aspect of the theory is the base assumption
that no action performed by an individual is intrinsically criminal (Crossman,
2013). Instead, the theory suggests that criminal behavior is defined by the
authoritative structure of society, and interpreted by law enforcement, legal branches,
and correctional systems (Crossman, 2013). Using this theory, one would surmise
that deviance is defined as a process of interactions between deviant and
non-deviant individuals, and the interpretation of the context of criminality
(Crossman, 2013).
Travis Hirsci’s social
control theory suggests that deviant behavior occurs when an individual or
group of individuals attachment to social bonds are weakened. This theory also
suggests that individuals care about the image they portray to others, and
conform to social expectations because they do not want to be viewed as
different or unacceptable for deviating from the accepted societal norms
(Crossman, 2013). Hirschi focused in how individuals with deviant behavior
attach or do no attach to societal value systems, and what factors influence an
individual’s decision to deviate from societal norms (Crossman, 2013). Hirschi
also suggests that most individuals are prone to experience impulses or desires
to deviate from societal norms, but rarely act on their desires because of
their attachment to the accepted norms (Crossman, 2013). Edwin Sutherland’s
(1883-1950) differential association theory emphasizes the processes that
determine if an individual decides to commit acts of deviance or not, and that
criminal behavior is learned through and individual’s interactions with others
(Crossman, 2013). Sutherland suggests that these interactions an individual
learns basic attitudes, motives, techniques, and values of criminal behavior.
Sutherland’s theory emphasizes that the frequency of interaction with
individuals with deviant behaviors and deviant environments directly influences
an individual’s potential for becoming socially deviant (Crossman, 2013).
Social Process Theory
Social Process theory is a
process of identifying and relating criminal behavior are a function resulting
from an individual’s direct or indirect interactions with a variety of
institutions, organizations, and societal process (Siegel, 2000). This theory
suggests that an individual’s socioeconomic or cultural history has less
influence on his or her potential for criminal behavior than the influence of
destructive social relationships (Siegel, 2000). The social process theory is
based on three core beliefs that people learn how to commit crimes, failure in
society to control criminal behaviors, and that negative labels produce
criminal behavior (Siegel, 2000).
Differential
Association Theory
The social learning aspect
suggests that individuals learn criminal behavior in the same manner that they
learn socially acceptable, and normal behaviors. Edward Sutherland (1883-1950)
developed the differential association theory, which is a major foundation for
the social process theory. Sutherland’s differential association theory as
cited in Florida State University, 2013) states “Excess of definitions
favorable to deviance over definitions unfavorable to violation of law enforces
a person to become a deviant while associating with other persons.” (para. 2).
Sutherland suggests that an individual learns criminal behavior from his or her
interactions with other deviant individuals, and that through association, the
he or she learns techniques, rationale, motives, and other factors associated
with deviant or criminal behavior (Florida State University, 2013).
Sutherland’s theory deviates from conventional pathological perspectives and
biological perspectives by associating the root cause of crime to the social
context of the individual (Florida State University, 2013). His theory rejects
the concept that an individual’s biological, economic factors, and the concepts
of psychiatry to pursue an alternate explanation of why people become criminals
(Florida State University, 2013). Sutherland suggests that an individual will
become a criminal by relation to social perspectives involving conduct over
prosocial perspectives (Florida State University, 2013).
The core principles of
Sutherland;s theory is that people learn criminal behavior through verbal and
non-verbal interactions with other individuals, and that the learning process
occurs within intimate personal groups (Florida State University, 2013). This
also suggests that exposure to movies, readings, or news outlets provide a
minimal influence on the individual’s deviant behaviors (Florida State
University, 2013). Furthermore, Sutherland suggests that when and individual
begins displaying deviant behaviors, the primary factors are the constructs of
criminal patters combined with the lack of association with anti-criminal
patterns (Florida State University, 2013).
Social Conflict Theory
The social conflict theory is
derived from Karl Marx (1818-1883) who viewed the societal structure as being
fragmented into various groups competing for social and economic resources
(Crossman, 2013). The Social conflict theory suggests that social order is
maintained by methods of domination, and a division of power among individuals
with the largest amounts of economic, political resources (Crossman, 2013).
This theory also suggests that a consensus of a larger group of people united
by common interests will be more successful in developing policies opposed by smaller, less influential groups
(Crossman, 2013). This often results in people from smaller, less influential
groups becoming involved in criminal behaviors. According to the conflict
theory as stated in Crossman (2013), “Inequality exists because those in
control of a disproportionate share of society’s resources actively defend
their advantages.” (para. 2). Meaning, that individuals or groups are not bound
to society by a shared set of values, but rather by coercion from individuals
in power (Crossman, 2013). The theory suggests that individuals and groups are
primarily focused on advancing their own interests, and engage in constant
struggles to control societal resources. The theory also infers that
individuals or groups with greater access to societal resources will exercise
their power over others with indifference and inequality (Crossman, 2013). The
Social conflict theory emphasizes the importance of factors related to social
class, cultural differences, and gender as the basis for society’s most
prominent and long-lasting struggles (Crossman, 2013).
Conclusion
There are many theories
involving the primary reasons for social deviance and criminal behavior. This
paper explored the prominent theories involved in the subject, and clearly
outlines the similarities and differences of each of the discussed theories.
Although each theory has a certain amount of validity, they also possesses
weaknesses that leave opportunity for further debate and investigation.
Although these theories provide some explanations for deviant or criminal
behavior, there are additional factors of a psychological aspect that cannot be
ignored. The video that was used as the basis of this paper discussed
prostitution along immigration routes, and each of the theories discussed
provided clear examples of how prostitution can be supported as a byproduct of
individuals seeking illegal methods of immigrating into another country in a
desperate attempt to improve his or her life.
References
Crossman, A. (2013). Conflct
theory. Retrieved from http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Conflict-Theory.htm
Crossman,
A. (2013). Sociological explanations
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Crossman,
A. (2013). Structural strain theory. Retrieved from http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Structural-Strain-Theory.htm
Florida State
University. (2013). Edwin H. Sutherland. Retrieved from http://criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/sutherland.html
Siegel, L.J. (2000). Social
process theories. Retrieved
from https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=185186
Siegel,
L.J. (2000). Social structure Theories. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=185185
University of Phoenix. (2013). Prostitution
along immigration routes. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, CJA314 website.
U.S.
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